Stvaranje konkurentske prednosti

1.

PREDMET
STRATEŠKI MENADŽMENT
Predavanje broj 2
STVARANJE KONKURENTSKE PREDNOSTI - II
Oktobar 2011.
SADRŽAJ
Uvod ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
7. Trostruka suština: inkorporiranje kako finansijskih, tako i ekoloških i društvenih troškova ................. 2
8. Pogled iz perspektive strateškog menadžmenta: imperativ u celoj organizaciji ................................. 3
9. Neki ključni pokretački faktori .............................................................................................................. 4
10. Povećanje obima angažovanosti zaposlenih u procesu strateškog rnenadžmenta ......................... 6
10.1 Obezbeđivanje koherentnosti u strateškom usmeravanju .............................................................. 7
11. Organizaciona vizija .......................................................................................................................... 8
12. Iskaz o misiji .................................................................................................................................... 10
13. Strateški ciljevi ................................................................................................................................. 11
STUDIJA SLUČAJA: Ekološko obrazovanje u funkciji održivog razvoja, originalni-naučno istraživački
rad.......................................................................................................................................................... 13

2.

Strateški menadžment
Predavanje br. 2
Predavanje br. 1
Strateški menadžment: Stvaranje konkurentske
prednosti – nastavak
Uvod
Preduslov za slušanje predmeta MK 510 Strateški menadžment je odslušan I položen
predmet MK 150 Osnovi menadžmenta. Nastavno gradivo je podeljeno u petnaest jedinica, tj.
petnaest nedelja koliko traje semestar. Takođe, nastavu će pratiti i vežbe iz menadžmenta sa
odgovarajućim studijama slučaja, petnaest nedelja .
Tekst koji sledi je osnovni tekst za prva dva predavanja. U tekstu koji sledi objašnjena su i
predavanja koja će biti prezentovana tokom celog predmeta MK 510 Strateški menadžment. Nakon
odslušana prva dva predavanja biće vam pojašnjene sledeće celine I pojmovi:
• Definicija i četiri ključna atributa strateškog menadžmenta.
• Proces strateškog menadžmenta i tri glavne, međusobno povezane aktivnosti kroz koje se on odvija.
• Vitalna uloga koju imaju korporativno upravljanje i menadžment stejkholdera, kao i način na koji je
moguće mnogobrojne stejkholdere jedne organizacije dovesti u "simbiozu".
• Značaj koji ima društvena odgovornost u koju spada ekološka održivost, i način na koji može da
poboljša inovacionu strategiju neke organizacije.
• Koje su to ključne snage koje deluju iz okruženja stvarajući nepredvidive promene i zahteve da
zaposlenima na svim nivoima unutar organizacije dobiju veća ovlašćenja.
• Na koji način svest o hijerarhiji Strateških ciljeva može da pomogne da organizacija utvrdi
koherentan Strateški pravac.
7. Trostruka suština: inkorporiranje kako finansijskih, tako i
ekoloških i društvenih troškova
Da bi obezbedile dugoročni opstanak, mnoge kompanije sprovode one što se naziva .trostruka
suština". Ova tehnika podrazumeva procenu finansijskog, socijalnog i ekološkog učinka. Shell, NELT i
Procter & Gamble, samo su neke od kompanija koje su uvidele da izostavljanje socijalnih troškova i
troškova očuvanja životne sredine predstavlja rizik i za kompaniju i za drusrvenu zajednicu u kojoj ona
radi. Ekološka revolucija traje već gotovo četiri deceniie.'' Ona je zauvek promenila način na koji
kompanije posluju. Tokom šezdesetih i sedamdesetih godina dvadesetog veka, kompanije su negirale
uticaj njihovih firmi na prirodu. Međutim,čcitav niz vidljivih ekoloških problema postao je osnov za
uvođenje strogih vladinih uredbi. U Sjedinjenim Drsavama jezero Iri je bilo mrtvo, a u Japanu su ljudi
umirali zbog trovanja živom.
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Strateški menadžment
Predavanje br. 2
Stjuart Hart (Stuart Hart) koji piše za Harvard Business Review, bavi se problemima i izazovima koji su
vezani za prirodno okruzenje: Izazov je stvoriti odrzivu globalnu ekonomiju, ekonomiju koju naša
planeta beskrajno dugo može da podnese. Mada se u razvijenom svetu približavamo ekološkom
oporavku, planeta posmatrana u celini još uvek je na neodrživom putu. Počeci dvadesetog veka kao
sto su osiromašene oranice, ribnjaci i šume, zagadenje urbanih sredina, siromaštvo, zarazne bolesti i
migracije, prelivaju se preko geopolitickih granica. Prosto činjenično stanje je sledece: nastojeći da
zadovoljimo svoje potrebe, mi budućm generacijama uskraćjemo sposobnost da zadovolje svoje
potrebe.
Korporacije su organizacije koje imaju sredstva, tehnologiju, globalnu rasirenost i, na kraju krajeva,
motivaciju da ostvare odrzivost. Održivost u zivotnoj sredini danas predstavlja vrednost koju su
prihvatile i najkonkurentnije i najsupešnije multinacionalne kompanije. Anketa korporacije McKinsey,
sprovedena na više od 400 starijih izvrsnih direktora koji vode kompanije širom sveta, utvrdila je da se
92% ispitanika složilo sa izjavom bivseg predsednika Sonyja Akio Morita da ce ekološki izazovi
predstavljati jednu od ključnih tema u 21. veku. Prakticno svi direktori koji su učestvovali u anketi
izjavili su da njihova firma preduzima odgovorne mere da bi kontrolisala zagađenje, a 83% ispitanika
se složilo da korporacije snose ekološku odgovornost za svoje proizvode čak i nakon sto ih prodaju.
Za mnoge uspesne firme ekoloske vrednosti zauzimaju centralno mesto u njihovim korporativnim
kulturama i procesu upravljanja. A kao sto smo ranije pomenuli, efekti na okruzenje posmatraju se kao
druga suština". Ovakvi ekološki efekti ne mere se uvek finansijama. Medutim, one imaju posebnu
vrednost koju kompanije ne mogu da zanemaruju. Cad Holidej (Chad Holliday), generalni direktor
kompanije DuPont, vodi jednu multinacionalnu korporaciju koja je zauzela proaktivan stav prema
strategijama ekoloske održivosti. On takode predsedava Svetskim poslovnim savetom za održivi
razvoj koji predstavlja koaliciju od ISO kompanija iz vise od trideset zemalja i koja je posvecena
ocuvanju životne sredine, drustvenoj jednakosti i ekonomskom rastu.
8. Pogled iz perspektive
imperativ u celoj organizaciji
strateškog
menadžmenta:
Kao sto smo vec primetili, Strateški meuadžment zahteva od menadžera da imaju integrativni pogled
na organizaciju i da procenjuju kako se sve oblasti funkcionisanja i delovanja međusobno uklapaju da
bi pomogle organizaciji da postigne svoje ciljeve. To se ne maže postići ako samo top menadzeri u
organizaciji imaju integrisan, Strateški pogled na probleme i pitanja s koiima se firma suočava dok se
svi ostali "zalažu za sebe" u svojim nezavisnim, izolovanim oblastima funkcionisanja. Odeljenja
marketinga i prodaje, po pravilu, vole široke linije proizvoda za odredenu namenu, odeljenje
proizvodnje će zahtevati standardizovane proizvode koji se relativno lako prave da bi se smanjili
troškovi proizvodnje, odeljenje istraživanja i razvoja ce dizajnirati proizvode koji cc demonstrirati
tehnicku eleganciju, i tako dalje. Umesto ovakvog pristupa, ljudi u citavoj organizaciji trebalo bi da
streme ka krajnjim, sveobuhvatnim ciljevima.
Kao sto je rekao Piter Sengi sa MITa, dani kada su Henri Ford, Alfred Sloan i Tom Votson (izvrsni
direktori Forda, General Motorsa i IBM-a) "učili u ime cele organizacije su prošlost". On dalje kaže
sledeće: U izuzetno dinamičnom, međuzavisnom i nepredvidljivom svetu, više jednostavno nije
moguće da samo "neko tamo na vrhu sve to reši". Stari model po kom na vrhu misle, a lokalci rade"
mora da ustukne pred integrisanim mišljenjem i delovanjem na svim nivoima. Kao što je izazov
ogroman, tako je i potencijalna isplativost ogromna. Prema rečima bivseg generalnog direkrora
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Strateški menadžment
Predavanje br. 2
Citibank-a Voltera Ristona (Walter Wriston): ‘’Osoba koja smisli kako pravilno da usmeri kolektivni
genij svih ljudi u svojoj organizaciji, oduvaće konkurenciju’’.
9. Neki ključni pokretački faktori
Postoje brojni pokretački faktori koji intenziviraju potrebu za strateškom perspektivom i većim
angažovanjem unutar cele organizacije'" Neki od najznačajnijih faktora su globalizacija, tehnologija i
intelektualni kapita. Oni su međusobno povezani i svi združeno ubrzavaju promene i povećavaju
neizvesnost s kojima se nose mceadžeri na svim nivoima. Implikacije takvih nepredvidivih promena
možda je najbolje uočio bivši predsednik kompanije AOL Time Warner Stiven M. Kejs (Stephen M.
Case) u jednom svom obraćanju investitorima i analitičarima: "Ponekad se osećam kao da sam za
volanom trkačkog automobila ... Jedno od najvećih iskušenja je što ne postoje saobraćajni znaci da mi
pornognu u vožnji. I... niko još nije utvrdio na kojoj strani puta treba da budemo«.
Globalizacija. Suštinska crta globalne privrede nije protok robe jer međunarodna trgovina postoji
vekovima, već protok kapitala, ljudi i informacija širom sveta. Sa globalizacijom, vreme i prostor više
nisu prepreka za sklapanje poslova bilo gde u svetu. Zahvaljujući kompjuterskoj umreženosti,
omogućeno je istovremeno obavljanje transakcija, a posmatrači tržista rade 24 casa dnevno, sedam
dana u nedelji. Zajedno sa sve bržim obavljanjem transakcija i dobijanjem resursa i informacija na
globalnom nivou, menadžeri moraju da se bave paradoksalnim zahtevom da misle globalno, a rade
lokalno. Oni moraju brzo da premeštaju resurse i informacije širom sveta da bi zadovoljili lokalne
potrebe. Oni se takođe suočavaju sa novim izazovima prilikom formulisanja novih strategija: nesigurne
političke situacije, komplikovani problemi trgovine, stalna fluktuacija deviznog kursa, nepoznate
kulture, teški socijalni problemi. Savremeni menadžen moraju bolje nego ikada do sada da poznaju
načine funkcionisanja stranih klijenata, trgovine i konkurenata. Kako tržišta postaju sve otvorenija, što
svedoče ugovori o slobodnoj trgovim sklopljeni među različitim nacijama, sve veći broj stranih firmi
ulaže na naše domaće tržiste. Na taj način se pojačava konkurencija. Osim toga, S obzirom na to da
firme posluju na globalnim tržištima, potezi konkurenata u domaćoj ekonomiji mogu imati za posledicu
negativne efekte koje će firma osetiti na nekom drugom segmentu medunarodnog tržišta. Na taj način
firme se nalaze pod pritiskom da pređu na međunarodna tržista da bi ostale konkurentne u onim
oblastima u kojima već posluju. Jasno je da globalizacija zahteva da firme razviju svoju sposobnost da
uče i saraduju, kao i da se nose sa različitostima, kompleksnostima i dvosmislenostima. Menadžeri
najvišeg nivoa sve to ne mogu da urade sami.
Tehnologija. Tehnološke promene i širenje novih tehnologija dešava se neverovatnom brzinom.
Takav razvoj i razgranatost izrazito naglašavaju potrebu da firme budu inovativne ukoliko žele da
ostanu konkurentne. Dejvid de Puri (David de Pury) (ABB), bivši kopredsedavajući upravnog odbora u
kompaniji Asea Brown Boveri, tvrdi da je prvo pravilo međunarodne industrijske konkurentske
utakmice "inovacija ili srmrt". Isto tako, stalni tehnološki razvoj i
promene rezultirale su da proizvodi imaju kraći žrvotru ciklus. Endru Orouv, predsednik Intela objasnio
je kako njegova kompanija uvodi neki novi proizvod. Nedavno, firma je izbacila novi sofisticirani
proizvod u koji je ulozila prilična sredstva. Međutim, krajem iste godine, Intel je izbacio novi proizvod
koji je bukvalno "pojeo" već postojeći proizvod. Na taj način firma je imala svega jedanaest meseci da
povrati svoju veliku investiciju. Ovako intenzivan razvoj novih proizvoda zahteva zalaganje i saradnju
menadžera i profesionalaca iz svih delova kompanije.
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Od video-konferencijskih linkova do Interneta, tehnologija je učinila nas svet manjim i dinamičnijim.
Ideje i ogroman broj informacija u stalnom su pokretu. Menadžeri su suočeni sa izazovom da pronađu
smisao u onom što nudi tehnologija. Ali svaka tehnologija nudi nove
vrednosti. U godinama koje dolaze, menadžeri u svim organizacijama ce biti zaduženi da tehnologiju
učine jos važnijim i produktivnijim delom radnog okruženja. Oni će morati neprestano da budu ispred
informativne krive (eng, infomwcion curve) i da nauče kako da mobilišu informacije da bi poboljšali
poslovni učinak. Ako to ne učine, preti opasnost da ih prekrije talas podataka, a ne ideja. Pored
potencijalnih dobrih strana, tehnologija može da pokrene neka važna etička pitanja koja treba razrešiti.
Intelektualni kapital. Znanje je postalo direktan izvor konkurentske prednosti za kompanije koje
prodaju ideje i odnose (npr, profesionalne usluge, softver i kompanije koje pokreću nove tehnologije),
ali i indirektan izvor konkurentske prednosti za sve one kompanije koje pokušavaju da se izdvoje od
svojih rivala načinom na koji ce stvarati vrednost za svoje potrošače. Kao što ćerno videti u poglavlju
4, farmaceutska kompanija Merck, vredna 52 milijarde dolara, postala je neverovatno uspesna jer su
njeni naučnici otkrili nove lekove, odnosno, uspeh ne duguje svom umeću da dobro pravi tablete. Dr
Roj Vagelos (Roy Vagelos), bivši generalni direktor Merck-a, rekao je: "Bilo ko, bilo gde može da
napravi jeftin proizvod. Ali kada imate znanje koje niko drugi nema, onda je to bomba. Svoja
istraživanja štitimo bolje od svojih finansijskih sredstava". Dolaženje do novih saznanja i njihova
primena da bi se isporučili različiti proizvodi i usluge, superiorniji po svojoj vrednosti za klijente,
zahteva angažovanje superiornijih talenata kao i razvoj i negovanje tih talenata. Međutim, uspešne
firmee, takođe, moraju da stvore sredinu u kojoj vladaju jake društvene i profesionalne veze i gde su
ljudi čvrsto povezani sa svojim kolegama i svojom organizacijom. Geri Hamel (Gary Hamel), jedan od
vodećih autora iz oblasti strateškog menadžmenta zapisao je: .Kako raste broj i kvalitet međusobnih
veza medu pojedincima i idejama, tako se povećava i sposobnost za kombinovanje i prekombinovanje
ideja".
Tehnologije se moraju koristiti efektivno da bi se mobilisao ljudski kapital, da bi se olakšala saradnja
među pojedincima i razvili sofisticiraniji sistemi za menadžment znanja (eng. knowledge
management). Izazov i prilika koju ima menadžment nije samo da stekne i zadrži ljudski kapital već i
da se pobrine da zaposleni razviju i zadrže strategijsku perspektivu prilikom davanja svog doprinosa
organizaciji. Ovo je izuzetno važno ukoliko menadžent zeli da iskoristi
svoje talente da bi na efektivan način pomogao organizaciji da postigne svoje ciljeve. Sada ćerno da
pogledamno šta neke kornpanije čine da bi povećale angažovanost zaposlenih na svim nivoima
organizacije u procesu strateškog menadžmenta.
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Strateški menadžment
Predavanje br. 2
10. Povećanje obima angažovanosti zaposlenih u procesu
strateškog rnenadžmenta
Savremene organizacije mnoraju da anticipiraju dramatične i nepredvidive promene u svom
konkurentnom okruženju i da na njih pravilno odreaguju. Sa pojavorn ekonomije znanja (eng.
knowledge economy) ljudski kapital (nasuprot finansijskim i materijalnim sredstvima) postao je ključ za
obezbeđivanje dugotrajnih prednosti na tržištu
Da bi se obučilo i mobilisalo ljudstvo i ostala aktiva u organizaciji, neophodni su lideri u svim
segmentima organizacije. Organizacije više ne mogu biti uspešne i efikasne ukoliko "vrh misli", a
ostatak organizacije "obavlja posao". Svi moraju biti uključeni u proces strateškog menadžmenta. Piter
Sengi je uvideo da postoji ključna potreba za tri vrste lidera.
Lokalni linijski lideri koji snose veliku odgovornost za ostvarivanje profita i gubitaka.
Izvršni direktori koji su šampioni i daju ideje, stvaraju obrazovnu strukturu i uspostavljaju domen za
delovanje.
Interni radnici u mreži (eng. networkers) koji, iako imaju slabu pozicionu moć i formalnu nadležnost,
svoju moć ostvaruju na osnovu ubedljivosti i jasnoće svojih ideja.
Seli Helgesen (Sally Helgesen), autor knjige Mroć uključivanja: novi plan za izgradnju velikih
organizacija, iznela je sličan stav koji se tiče činjenice da u svakom segmentu organizacije postoji
potreba za liderima. Ona je ocenila da mnoge organizacije "postaju plen sindroma heroja i trutova,
hvaleći vrednosti onih na visokim pozicijama, čime implicitno degradiraju doprinos onih koji ne uspeju
da dodu do vrha". Kultura i procesi u kojima se lideri pojavljuju na svim nivoima u organizaciji, kako
vertikalno, tako i horizontalno, tipični su za savremene uspešne firme. Daćerno nekoliko primera da
bismo ilustrovali šta preduzimaju neke firme da bi povećale angažovanost zaposlenih u celoj
organizaciji. Direktori sa najviših pozicija imaju ključnu ulogu u određivanju kako će se to sprovoditi.
Uzmimo za primer Ricarda Brensona (Richard Branson), osnivača Virgin Group, čiji osnovni poslovi
uključuju maloprodajne poslove, hotele, komunikacije i avio-kompaniju. On je poznat po tome što je
stvorio kulturu i neformalnu strukturu u svojoj organizaciji u kojoj svako može biti angažovan na
stvaranju novih poslovnih ideja i na njihovom sprovodenju.: Evo šta je izjavio u jednom intervju:
‘’Brzina je nešto u čemu smo bolji od ostalih kompanija. Mi ne održavamo formalne sastanke
upravnog odbora, komiteta i slično. Ako neko ima ideju, on može da podigne slušaliicu i da mi se javi
da porazgovaramo. Ja mogu da odobrim to: "OK, dogovorili smo se, hajde da to i uradirno". IIi još
bolje, oni mogu sami da krenu u realizaciju. Oni znaju da im ja neću očitati lekciju ako naprave
grešku’’. Pravila i odredbe nisu naša jaka strana. Analiziranje stvari do sitnica nije naiš metod. Mi
veoma retko sedimo i analiziramo ono što radimo. Veš se profesor ne slaže sa ovakvim stilom
rukovođenja.
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Da bi se perspektiva strateškog menadžmenta uvela na sve segmente organizacije, mnoge velike
organizacije sa tradicionalnim stavovima moraju da ulože ekstremne napore da bi izvršili
transformaciju. Ova podrazumeva ekstenzivnu komunikaciju, obuku i razvoj ne bi Ii se u celoj
organizaciji razvio Strateški pogled na stvari.
Automobilska industrija Ford Motors jedan je takav primer. Ford je pokrenuo radikalne promene u
organizacijskoj kulturi i upustio se u pokušaj da obuči lidere u svim segmentima organizacije. Želja im
je bila da stvore armiju "ratnika-preduzetnika" - ljudi koji imaju hrabrosti i znanja da odbace stare ideje
i koji dovoljno strastveno veruju u promene da bi ih mogli i sprovesti. U nastavku ćerno dati nekoliko
detalja vezanih za Fordove napore u tom smislu. Ford je poslao oko 2.500 menadzera u svoj Centar
za razvoj liderstva na jedan od četiri programa pod nazivima Capstone, Izazovi iskusnog lidera,
Fordovi poslovni saradnici i Novi biznis lider. Tokom ovih kurseva polaznici su usvojili ne same rečnik i
mentalni sklop revolucionara, već i sve oruđe neophodno da bi sproveli revoluciju. Istovremeno, kroz
program Inicijativa biznis lidera, svih 100.000 zaposlenih širom sveta učestvovaće u "kaskadnom"
biznis liderstvu, intenzivnim vežbama koje kombinuju tzv. kliznu (eng, trickle-down) komunikaciju sa
konkretnim timskim projektima". Želeli bismno da završimo sa našim omiljenim primerom kako
neiskustvo može da bude vrlina. Ovaj primer samo još više potvrđuje prednosti koje organizacija ima
od širokog angažovanja zaposlenih iz svih segmenata u procesu strateškog menadžmenta.
10.1
Obezbeđivanje
usmeravanju
koherentnosti
u
strateškom
Da bi bili uspešni, zaposleni i menadžeri u celoj organizaciji moraju da teže istim opštim i posebnim
ciljevima. Kada se jasno odrede željeni rezultati, postaje mnogo lakse kretati se napred. U suprotnom,
kada niko ne zna sta firma nastoji da postigne, niko nema ideju sa kojim ciljem radio baš kao što kaže
stara pomorska izreka: "Nema vetra koji je povoljan za onaj brod koji nema zacrtan kurs plovidbe".
Organizacije na najbolji način izražavaju svoje prioritete kroz iskazane opšte i posebne ciljeve koji
zajedno čine hijerarhiju ciljeva. Hijerarhija ciljeva jedne organizacije uključuje njenu viziju, misiju i
strateske ciljeve. Ono što vizijama nedostaje u dorečenosti, one nadoknađuju sposobnošću da
izazovu stalne mentalne slike. S druge strane, Strateški ciljevi teže da budu odredeniji i da pruže više
neposrednih sredstava kojima se utvrduje da li se organizacija kreće
ka širim, sveukupnim, konačnim ciljevima. U narednim pododeljcima bavićerno se vizijama, misijama i
Strateškim ciljevima.
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11. Organizaciona vizija
Pocetno polazište za postavljenje jasne hijerarhije ciljeva neke firme je kompanijska vizija. Ona se
često opisuje kao krajnji cilj koji je "snažno inspirativan, sveobuhvatan i dugoročan". Vizija predstavlja
odredište na koje se polazi i koje izaziva strast. Vizija može biti uspešna ili ne. To zavisi ad toga da li
se sve ostalo dešava u skladu sa firminorn strategijom.
Osmišljavanje i sprovodenje vizije predstavlja jedan od glavnih zadataka jednog lidera. U anketi
sprovedenoj na 1.500 starijih menadžera, od kojih su 870 bili generalni direktori iz 20 različitih država,
ispitanici su pitani šta su po njihovom ubedenju ključne karakteristike koje mora da poseduje jedan
lider. Devedeset osam procenata ispitanih odgovorilo je da je najvaznija crta "jako vizionarstvo". Na
sličan način, kada su ih upitali koje su to ključne sposobnosti i znanja koja lideri treba da imaju,
ispitanici su istakli "formulisanje strategije da se postigne vizija" kao najvažniju veštinu. Drugim rečima,
nije dovoljno da menadžeri imaju viziju, već moraju imati i plan kako da je primene. Na zalost, 90%
anketiranih je izjavilo da baš nema poverenje u sopstvene veštine i sposobnosti da smisle viziju za
svoju organizaciju. Na primer, T. Dz. Rodzers (T J. Rogers), generalni direktor Finne Cypress
Semiconductor, proizvođač elektronskih čipova koji je upao u probleme 1992. godine, žalio je nad
činjenicom što je njegova lična kratkovidost prouzrokovala opasnost: "Ja jednostavno nisam gledao
dalekosežno i upecao sam se". Jedan od najpaznatijih primera vizije dalazi iz Diznilenda: .Bićemo
najsrećnije mesto na zemlji". Evo još nekolika primera: Vraćamo pacijente punom životu" (kompanija
Medtronic). "Mi želima da izađemo u susret svim finansijskim potrebama naših klijenata i da im
pomognemo da postignu finansijski uspeh" (Wells Fargo). "Naša vizija je da budemo najbolji svetski
restoran brze usluge" (McDonald's). Mada ne postoji precizan indikator kojim bi bilo mnoguće izmeriti
u kojoj meri se takve vizije ostvaruju, one pružaju osnovnu izjavu vrednosti, aspiracija i ciljeva neke
organizacije. Naravno, takve vizije uveliko prevazilaze uske finansiiske ciljeve i nastoje da zarobe i um
i srce zaposlenih. Iskaz o viziji može, takođe, da sadrži slogan, dijagram ili sliku, sve sto zaokuplja
pažnju.
Cilj je da se u samo nekoliko reči koje se lako pamte, a ipak ozivljavaju duh čitavog iskaza o viziji,
sažme suština onih formalnijih delova vizije. Tokom svoje dvadesetogodišnje borbe sa kompanijom
Xerox, slogan ili borbeni poklic Canona bile su reci: "Poraziti Xerox". Motorolin slogan je: ,;Totalno
zadovoijstvo kupaca", Slogan korporacije Outboard Marine je: "Da izvedemo svet u vožnju čamcem",
a Chevron nastoji da: .Postane bolji od najboljih". Jasno je da izjave o viziji nisu univerzalni lek za sve.
Nekad se one okrenu protiv vas i naruše kompanijin kredibilitet. Vizije propadaju iz mnogo razloga,
među kojima su i oni o kojima će biti reči u narednim pasusima.
Kada dela ne opravdavaju reči, idealistička vizija može kod zaposlenih da probudi entuzijazam.
Međutim, taj isti entuzijazam može brzo da bude ugušen ako zaposleni vide da se top menadžment ne
ponašaju u skladu s vizijom. Neretko vizija predstavlja kampanju smišljanja slogana punih novih
zvušnih reči i praznih fraza, kao sto su: odanost potrošačima", "timski rad" ili .apsolutru kvalitet", koje
nisu uvek podržane ponašanjem i akcijama najvisih menadžera.
Irelevantnost. Vizija koja je stvorena u vakumu, neuskladena sa ekološkim pretnjama ili povoljnim
prilikama, ili sa resursima i sposobnošću same organizacije, može da ignoriše potrebe onih od kojih se
ocekuje da se za nju "zagreju". Kada vizija nije utemeljena u stvarnosti, zaposleni će je odbaciti.
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Ne radi se o svetom Gralu. Menadžeri obično neprestano traže neko nejasno rešenje koje će rešiti
probleme njihove firme, odnosno traže novi sveti gral menadžmenta. Možda su probali sa ostalim
novotarijama u menadžmentu i shvatili da one nisu opravdale njihova
očekivanja. Medutim, oni ostaju u uverenju da jedna takva idealna vizija postoji. Vizije idu u prilog
mudrom menadžmentu, ali se zahteva da reci i dela budu uskladeni i da svi budu odgovorni za svoje
ponašanje. Vizija se jednostavno ne može shvatiti kao čarobni lek za bolesti neke organizacije.
Suvišna usmerenosr uzrokuje propuštanje povoljnih šansi. Jasno je da je jedna od dobrih strana
mudre izjave o suštini vizije da ona usmerava napore i uzbuđuje ljude. Međutim, druga strana medalje
je da usmeravanjem ljudstva i sredstava na jednu usku stvar, mogu da se propuste uzbudljive i
inovativne povoljne prilike. Uzmimo, na primer, firmu Komatsu: Suočeni sa izazovom koji je
predstavljao ulazak kompanije Caterpillar na zastićeno domaće tržište koje je držao Komatsu, tadašnji
generalni direktor Komatsua Rioici Kvai (Ryoichi Kawai) je celu kompaniju usmerio na odnošenje
pobede nad Caterpillarorn. "Maru-C" bio je borbeni poklič koji je značio: Opkolimo Caterpillar". A da bi
neprijatelja učinio opasnim i sveprisutnim, Kavai je kupio najveci buldožer koji proizvodi Caterpillar i
stavio ga na krov upravne zgrade kompanije Komatsu.
Poznata je priča kako je Kavai usmerio svoju agresiju protiv Caterpillara i pretvorio je u maksimalno
disciplinovan i uspešan proces jačanja Komatsua i njegove pozicije na tržištu. (U stvari, ovo je
najkorišćeniji primer na Harvardu). Međutim, postojala je i manje poznata strana cele priče. Dve
decenije provedene u borbi na zivot i smrt, na koju su bili koncentrisani, sprečile su Komatsu da uoči
nove povoljne prilike u srodnim industrijskim oblastima i da traga za revolucionarnim inovacijama u
oblasti proizvodnje teških mašina i rovokopaca. Na kraju, kompaniju je preuzeo Tetsuja Katada
(Tetsuya Katada) i formalno ukinuo slogan Maru-C uklonivši sve simbole koje je Kvai postavio kao
oznake bitke protiv Caterpillara. Rezultat ovakvog poteza bila je uspešna ekspanzija kompanije u
srodne industrijske oblasti, kao što su robotika i razvoj nekih fundamentalno različitih i veoma novih
proizvoda, kao što su rovokopaci za podvodne radove.
Idealna budućnost ne miri se sa sadašnjošću. Mada se vizije ne stvaraju da bi odslikavale realnost,
ipak je potrebno da budu na neki način utemeljene u stvarnosti. Ljudi imaju teškoća da se poistovete
sa vizijom koja prikazuje budućnost ružičasto, ali često ne uzimaju u
obzir neprijateljski nastrojeno okruženje u kome se firma nadmeće sa konkurentima ili ignorise neke
od slabosti fume. Kao što ćemo videti. u sledećem odeljku, mnoga on ovih pitanja mogu da se
primene i na iskaze o misiji (eng. mission statements).
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12. Iskaz o misiji
Kompanijska misija razlikuje se od njene vizije po tome što uključuje i svrhu postojanja kompanije i
osnovu njene konkurentnosti i konkurentske prednosti. Obratite pažnju na činjenicu da je suština vizije
zasnovana na širokim osnovama, dok je suština misije odredenija i više usredsređena na sredstva
kojima će firma ući u nadmetanje sa konkurentima. Ovde spada i proizvodnja brendiranih proizvoda
koji ce biti pravljeni po želji klijenta da bi se stvorila dugoročna veza sa svojim klijentima.
Uspešno formulisani iskazi o misiji uključuju i koncept menadžmenta stejkholdera i na taj način
pokazuje da organizacije moraju da odgovore na potrebe različitih grupacija ako žele da opstanu i
prosperiraju. Klijenti, zaposleni, dobavljači i vlasnici predstavljaju primarne stejkholdere, ali i ostali
mogu imati važnu ulogu u nekoj odredenoj korporaciji. Iskazi o misiji su najuticajniji kada odražavaju
izdržljive, sveobuhvatne strateške prioritete neke organizacije i njenu poziciju medu konkurentima.
Izvestaji o suštini misije mogu varirati po dužini i određenosti.
Sledeća dva iskaza o misiji to ilustruju:
• Da za nase akcionare ostvarimo superioran prinos, a da našim klijentima pružimo najkvalitetnije
usluge prevoza, logistike i e-comerca (Federal Express).
Da budemo najbolji u poslu. Naš plan igre je da stalno idemo napred ... mi neprestano gledamo ispred
sebe, izgrađujemo se na sopstvenim jakim stranama i posežemo za novim dometima. U našoj potrazi
za ovim ciljevima sve vreme gledamo u tri zvezdice koje se nalaze na logou Brinkera i, koje nas
neprestano podsećaju na vrednosti i kvalitete naše kompanije ... Ljudstvo, kvalitet i profitabilnost. Sve
što se u Brinkeru radi mora da podrži ove suštinske vrednosti. Takođe, gledamo i osam buktinja koje
su naslikane na nasem logou i koje nas podsećaju na plamen koji pokreće našu misiju i koji čini srce i
dušu ove naše neverovatne kompanije. Ove buktinje predstavljaju: klijente, hranu, tim zaposlenih,
koncepciju, kulturu, partnere, društvenu zajednicu i deoničare. Kao čuvar ove vatre, nastavićemo da
se razvijamo na svojim kvalitetima i da radimo združeno da bismo bili najbolji u ovom poslu. (Restorani
Brinker u čijem vlasnisrvu su i restoranski lanci poput Chilli's i On the
Border).
Malo je iskaza o misiji koji profit ili neki drugi finansijski pokazatelj izdvajaju kao jedini cilj i svrh u
poslovanja firme. U stvari, mnogi i ne pominju profit ili zaradu akcionara. Zaposleni u organizacijama ili
u njihovim sektorima obično predstavljaju najvažnije posmatrače misije. Za njih misija treba da
pomogne da svi razumeju svrhu organizacije i da predano rade na njenom postizanju. Maksimiziranje
profita ne samo da ne uspeva da motivise ljude već ne pravi razliku među organizacijama. Svaka
korporacija želi da ostvari maksimalan profit na duge staze. Jedan dobar iskaz o misiji kompanije mora
da iskaže zašto je neka organizacija posebna i razlišita u odnosu na druge, a to se postize time što se
u iskazu obraca pažnja na svaku bitnu temu.
Dve studije u kojima je ispitivana veza izmedu vrednosti korporacije i iskaza o sustini misije i
finansijskog učinka pokazale su da najuspešnije firme vode racuna o drugim vrednostima, a ne samo
o profitu. Manje uspešne firme gotovo su se u potpunosti fokusirale na profitabilnost. Suštinski
gledano, profit je metaforički ekvivalent kiseoniku, hrani i vodi koja je potrebna nasem organizmu. Oni
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nisu svrha života, ali bez njih nema života. Mada su iskazi o suštini misije, po pravilu, trajni i retko se
menjaju, misija neke firme treba i mora da se menja kada se uslovi konkurentske utakmice dramatično
promene ili se firma nade pred novim opasnostima ili povoljnim prilikama.
13. Strateški ciljevi
U dosadašnjem tekstu razmatrali smo i vizije i misije. Izjave o viziji su, po pravilu, veoma široke i mogu
se opisati kao cilj koji predstavlja inspirativno i sveobuhvatno odrediste ka kome nas nose snažne
emocije.
S druge strane, izjave o misiji su po pravilu određenije i usmerene na
pitanja koja su u vezi sa suštinom postojanja organizacije i osnovama na kojima organizacija temelji
svoju željenu konkurentsku prednost na tržištu. Strateški ciljevi se koriste da bi iskazi o mislji postali
operativni. Drugim rečima, oni pružaju smernice kako da organizacija ispuni svoje više ciljeve u
hijerarhiji ciljeva, a to su misija i vizija, ili kako da se kreće ka njihovom ispunjenju. Zbog toga oni teže
da budu odredeniji i da pokriju duži jasno određeni vremenski okvir.
Postavljanje ciljeva zahteva način merenja u kojoj meri su ciljevi ispunjeni. Ako cilju nedostaje
određenost i merljivost, onda on nije koristan iz prostog razloga što u tom slučaju ne postoji način da
se utvrdi da li pomaže organizaciji da se kreće ka ispunjenju svoje misije i vizije.
Strateških ciljeva korporacija, koji su podeljeni u dve kategorije - finansijski i nefinansijski. I dok je
najveći broj Strateških ciljeva usmeren ka generisanju većih profita i zarada za vlasnike firmi, jedan
broj njih je usmeren ka klijentima, potrošačima i društvenoj zajednici u celini. Da bi ciljevi imali smisao,
neophodno je da zadovolje nekoliko kriterijuma.
Oni moraju biti:
Merljivi. Mora da postoji bar jedan pokazatelj (ili parametar) kojim se meri napredak ka ispunjenju cilja.
Određeni. Ovime se daje jasna poruka o tome šta je neophodno da se postigne.
Adekvatni. Ciljevi moraju biti u skladu sa vizijom i misijom organizacije.
Realni. Ciljevi moraju biti ostvarljivi u i u skladu sa kapacitetima organizacije i prilikama koje vladaju u
okruženju. Ukratko, ciljevi moraju biti izazovni, ali izvodljivi.
Vremenski određeni. Mora da postoji vremenski okvir za postizanje cilja. Na kraju krajeva, ekonomista
Dton Mejnard Kejnz (john Maynard Keynes) je jednom prilikom rekao: "Dugorocno gledano, na kraju
svi umrerno!"
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Kada ciljevi zadovoljavaju pomenute kriterijume, organizacija dobija na mnogo načina. Prvo, oni
pomažu da se zaposleni u svim segmentima organizacije usmere ka zajedničkom cilju. Ovo je od
velike koristi za organizaciju jer se ona tako koncentriše i uspeva da sačuva značajna sredstva, a
zaposleni rade kolektivno i znatno brže. Drugo, izazovni ciljevi mogu da pomognu u motivisanju i
inspirisanju radnika da budu posvećeniji poslu i da ulazu više napora. Veliki broj istraživanja potvrdio
je tezu da pojedinci marljivije rade kada teže nekim odredenim ciljevima nego kada im se same kaže
da "daju sve
od sebe".
Treće, kao što je već ranije bilo red u ovom poglavlju, uvek postoji mogućnost da delovi organizacije
streme ka svojim ciljevima umesto ka sveukupnim ciljevima organizacije. Mada su njihove namere
dobre, oni mogu delovati u koliziji sa celokupnom organizacijom. Smisleni ciljevi pomnažu da se
razreše konflikti kada do njih dođe. Na kraju, adekvatni ciljevi obezbeđuju parametre na osnovu kojih
se mere nagrade i inicijative. Oni ne samo da će uzrokovati više motivacije kod zaposlenih već će
pomoći da se postigne veći osećaj jednakosti i pravednosti pri nagrađivanju. Naravno, postoje i ostali
ciljevi koji su jos određeniji. O njima se obično govori kao o kratkoročnim ciljevima, i oni su suštinske
komponente "akcionih planova" koji su ključne za sprovodenje odabrane strategije firme.
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STUDIJA SLUČAJA: Ekološko obrazovanje u funkciji
održivog razvoja, originalni-naučno istraživački rad
Prof. dr Milan Stamatović
DISCOURSE OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT A BASE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN SERBIA
Abstract
Education in Serbia faces challenges of reforms and rapid adaptation to demands of global,
developed environment, intensive changes in science, technology, economy, entrepreneurship and
social relations in general, as well as to high standards and expectations. On the way to global
integrations, education that wants to have a marker - sustainable – incorporates principles of
sustainable development in its base: the principle of reconcilability with nature, economic
sustainability, social justice, cultural identity, global joint work.
In the age of high technology, the overall competitiveness of each country (along with other
factors) depends on education of its population to a large extent. Starting from the general importance
of education of population in order to get to poverty eradication, gender humanization, insurance of the
quality of life and sustainable development, peace and democracy, the education reform in Serbia
adopts the UNESCO Announcement of the International Literacy Decade (2003-2012). Also, taking
into consideration the "Memorandum of Lifelong Learning" of the European Commission, there has
been modeled the sustainable education of young people and adults, which, along with traditional
literacy (reading, writing, calculating), include new forms of literacy: information technology, foreign
languages, technological, entrepreneurial, social, and environmental, since a person without
knowledge of the new forms of literacy is deprived in terms of employment, active participation in
society, flexibility and mobility at the labor market.
After traditional and new contents of knowledge, the anthropological knowledge has become more
and more important: What is human knowledge, what is its role in qualitative, sustainable and
meaningful human life. Primary experiences, adjustment to personal, social and global contexts and
ideas on human aims, become more important (especially in the time when it seems that information
can simulate and control everything). This is not a criticism of culture directed against the information
technologies, but these are important tasks to further development of the technologies and its
adjustment to human needs and a human character. Those who succeed in it will ‘sell’ well their
products and supplies in terms of diversity, freedom of choice and sustainability in view of the future.
After all the reforms and wandering around, the school recognizes that environmental, sustainable
education forms a new way and style of life with relationships organized among adults and children at
school and outside the school in the local community. Sustainable learning and education reflect in the
introduction to objects and people through themselves – the sustainable living with children and young
people. Discovering of things that happen among people, other and different ways of thinking, learning
attitudes and subjects, help the self-understanding process as a necessary condition to deeper
understanding of human ethics and responsibility, since the sustainable learning and understanding
expands the self-consciousness and power of understanding the world in the context of global
integration and a global village which all of us belong to.
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Finally, a sustainable vision of education reform in Serbia has been focused on creation of a
system that will be able to get together and engage relevant factors and respond to their actual needs.
The education system that wants to have an indicator of sustainability is decentralized, efficient,
effective, qualitative, and transparent; it employs highly professional, reflective, creative and motivated
teaching staff; it has been focused on learning and it is a standard-based; it offers a high-quality
program, promotes the culture of evaluation, self-evaluation and development of the school; it fosters
fairness, ethics, tolerance, constructive communications – it is able to meet special educational needs,
it has included the perspective of the lifelong learning, and it has a support of educational
technologies.
Key words: sustainable development, ecology education, sustainable learning and education, global
integration.
Introductory remarks
Uncertainty and insecurity of human existence in today's global village cannot be eliminated or
at least alleviated by a simple and unique response. The current historical moment conditions us to
think about a need to form an indivisible triangle of ecology, economics and the brittle critical thinking
of ethically and mind-aware humanity, if we want to think about the future. The third factor of the
unique and unbreakable "three" belongs to the education, which faces the greatest challenge of the
moment and existence now- the analysis of dogmatic blindness of technocratic ideology, past-free
future or the ethical approach to holistic thinking of humanization of a person, and humanization of
nature in the concept of human ecology.
All three areas: ecology, economy and education have been differentiated in their specificities,
and it seems that they are hardly mutually compatible. Today it has become clear that only joint action,
only the "links" can form a "whole": Acting individually and ‘for themselves’ they cannot follow the
tendency of "sustainable development", and meet the expectations and recommendations for the
sustainable development prescribed in the Agenda 21, with the aim of building the future worthy of
human's global, holistic, and networked life.
The term "environmental education"
What is meant by the term "environmental education"? It is not possible to uniquely define the
concepts of nature, environment, and orientation to action as well. The same applies for the concept of
environment, which is often identified with the notion of home in the rural area, while in suburban
areas it includes architecture, social environment, and issues of multiculturalism. It has consequences
both on defining and developing the values that should be incorporated into the environmental
education, and on the thematic aspects of curriculum, textbooks, and reference books. There are
different views of the meaning of interdisciplinary teaching and learning. Opposite to project in which
teachers together teach on a single subject in one place for a long time, there are additive compounds
- which topics can (or must) be taught as environmental contents in particular subjects. It would be
good to evaluate different forms that go beyond the subject teaching and learning at schools, in order
to clearly define the criteria for the way promising a success. Eco-system settings of the mediation of
networked, holistic thinking have been rarely found in practice of teaching and learning. At schools in
Serbia, as a rule, children learn about what is wrong with their environment. This learning includes
experiments and measurements outside the school. Teaching pays little attention to practicing the
students’ skills to recognize eco-conflicts and deal with them (e.g. the role of ecological and
environmental problems in the local policy, conflicts of ecology and economics, the principles of
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sustainability ...), missing things which in OECD technical terms refer to the ‘teaching complexity’. In
order to process conflicts in teaching, the school must be open to contact with places where the ecopolicy and the environmental protection actually take place. Holistic thinking and actions refer both to
the interdisciplinary teaching and learning and to openness of schools to the local environment. The
openness of schools must be seriously considered, and environmental issues should be learnt not
only within the school subjects, but also based on their social and political implications. Working
conditions which go beyond the subject and activity orientation in our schools have not been
sufficiently explained by now. In the domain of the teachers’ education, there is a question of the role
of ecological competence as an integral part of key qualifications.
Spheres between the ecology and economy have been just outlined in our education system so far.
We need models that will help both those who teach and those who learn to creatively discuss the
conflicts arising at home, at workplace, in leisure time. Some of the topics: environmental durability
testing, analysis of the productivity line, eco-balances, the overall eco-calculations; relation between
the ecology and health, arrangement of sustainable lifestyles and development as a leading target of
eco-education. Global issues would have to be elaborated as situational and process-oriented activity,
with an attempt to research, since they are prerequisites for acquiring the eco-competent action.
However, teachers in our schools are often resigned, since it is difficult to predict processes that do
not depend on them, and it is difficult to notice the consequences of the "ecologized school" for
teachers and learners. There are often contradictions between their own actions and demands of
teaching. Raising awareness and qualification of teachers is the core of the political agenda for
promotion of the environmental education in Serbia. It should happen in accordance with the nature of
schools and education, while the models which institutionalize the cooperation of educational efforts of
schools and global environmental researches educational are very important in that sense.
Environmental education – today it has been considered with a full right as one of the major
fields of educational innovation, since there have not been more energetic efforts to change teaching
and learning in any other field in recent years. On the other hand, eco-education is an example of a
failure of education planning. Opposite to a high-quality ethical demand which has not been supported
by experimental models of the authorities, educational bodies and industry, there is a lack of
performance in practice, so the chances offered by eco-education in terms of creation of new ethics in
society and educational practice have not been sufficiently exploited by now.
In addition to many theoretical publications, theoretical basis of eco-education may derive
from some basic documents. In the late seventies, the "Club of Rome" sought for the anticipatory and
participatory education in the "human dilemma", which could and should take over a legitimate part in
eco-education, and in the entire society and education as well (1978). The recommendations of the
competent ministries of ecology and education contain supplements of these theoretical reflections,
adding the criteria of ‘retinitis’, since the ecology requires related and networked thinking and action
for its primary content. Anticipation, participation, and retinitis – lead to the fourth pragmatic dimension
of eco-education: towards orientation to action.
Arrangement of environmental education according to the concept of sustainable development
Analysis of the problems of globalization, individualization, identity, lifestyle, new media, and
the future of the countries with different cultures and societies, encourage new and different
understanding of cultural, historical and political situation in Serbia, as well as different reflection of
education, factors which have been considered relevant to the growing children, family relationships,
schools and everyday life.
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In that sense, UN Conference for Environment and Development Issues (held in Rio in 1992)
formulated the demands for action in the education process in its document "Agenda 21". For the first
time, representatives of the states and governments discussed the direct connection between
environmental protection and development, as moments which are essentially inseparable.
Environmental education obtained new determinants towards the problems of development in the care
for the environment, which is a part of a global common future. The concept of possible solutions to
problems was seen in the sustainable development which emphasizes the following objective: meeting
the needs of the present without fear that the future generations will not be able to meet their own
needs. Development that fulfils this deal has been manifested as permanent, sustainable, capable and
open towards the future.
The sustainable development is a social ideal, an ideal that needs to establish a unity in
improving human's economic and social living conditions with undisturbed natural foundations of life in
general. This is added to the postulate of fairness which contains a deal between the needs of
industrial countries and developing countries, between the present and future generations, a deal
among economic, environmental and social interests. Realization of the concept of sustainable
development can be achieved through education which influences cultural patterns and values in the
society. The Chapter 36 of the "Agenda 21", "Promotion of education at school, environmental
awareness, professional education and lifelong learning", particularly emphasizes the importance of
environmental education. This chapter deals with three program areas, which, among other things,
define the following objectives:
- Confirm recommendations from the World Conference on Education (5-9 March 1990,
Jomtien, Thailand);
- Reach a satisfactory level of environmental awareness and development awareness in all
sectors of society as soon as possible;
- Invest new efforts to reach the level of environmental education and development within the
social education for all individuals, from primary school level to adults;
- The work on integration of the concept of environment and development includes
demographics in all educational programs, particularly the analysis of the important issues of
environment and development in the local context. The attention should be paid to the most
accessible scientific data and other sources of knowledge, with the emphasized need for further
training of decision-makers at all levels (United Nations Efforts for Better Environment of the 21st
Century, 1992, pp. 1/I-1/IV).
One of the main activities which has contributed to realization of these goals in Serbia is the
preparation of the national strategy for synchronization of the educational process at all levels with the
principles of sustainable development and the new philosophy of life. A beginning of ecological
thinking is based on change of the human’s understanding of the nature, the realization that the
human being has a special place in the world in which he lives. The awareness of the ‘harmony of the
nature’ and the ‘harmony with the nature’ is the essence of logical thinking and realization of the
interactive relationship between a man and the nature. An important characteristic of the new value is
human understanding that he is a part of the ecosystem, a part of the nature. Thus, the human being
spiritually matures, builds himself within the rules and laws mediated by the nature, and individual and
social behavior of humans have been measured on the basis of their ecological thinking.
Building the sustainable relationship with nature through its new understanding is the idea of
innovative learning and education which has obtained the epithet of sustainable environmental
education, taking into account the ecological perspective. In that sense, in Serbia there are attempts to
redefine the aims of education in the context of the development of environmental awareness, while
the environmental education obtains a special place and role in the activities of the school. The aim of
the environmental education is to create awareness among young people to the issue of environment
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and ecological behavior, the readiness for responsible treatment of the environment, which should
continue even after the time spent at school.
Thus the environmental education becomes the teaching principle, being emphasized as (one
of) the major guidelines in the educational content (curriculum). It implies two basic approaches to
realization of the teaching activities. The first one is environmentally friendly approach, which mostly
fits into the curricula of biology, geography, physics, chemistry, technical education, and mathematics.
The second one is related to a man and a society and fits into the contents of history, Serbian
language, sociology, and art and music culture. The contents of environmental education and didactic
materials designed for them equally take care of both approaches with mutual continuous interlinking.
On one hand, the environmental education is understood as a teaching principle that covers all
subjects, while on the other hand, it is found, contextually and methodically, in particular (specific)
subjects after elaboration of specific topics (e.g. the problem of land, waters, flora and fauna, waste,
noise, atmosphere…).
The Projects of all integrated subjects with environmental issues, which elaborate the
objective state of natural-technical and social fields, with the participation of religion, music and art,
have been particularly suitable for more conscious perception of the life base jeopardizing on planet
Earth. Socio-political justification and cognitive perception are equally required as appreciation of
aesthetic aspects of untouched nature and ethical responsibility to all contemporaries of the Earth
(Andevski 2007).
There is a question of how these deep philosophical and global environmental issues could be
brought closer to the children? It is necessary to continually ‘translate’ complex issues analyzed by the
environmental pedagogy into the concrete problems and issues related primarily to direct (local)
environment in which we live. Hence it is necessary to continuously accept and seek examples
together with children. The bases for this, as well as for understanding of global environmental
problems, are feelings. In that sense, there are many ways through which we can approach to the
children’s world and life, what is very important for the eco-pedagogical perspective: children
overcome big segments of their ecological daily life through stories, images and fantasy, intuition,
open issues, drawing and imagination. Environmental issues, which carry a message of a new,
harmonious relationship with nature and people, are mastered via new ideas: creative, fundamentally
different from the usual way of observation, and through new forms of communication.
The concept of sustainability implies education requirements
In the context of our approach to sustainable environmental education, it applies to creation of
eco-pedagogical competence of action, which assumes a need for different understanding of
fundamental pedagogical categories, innovative approach to the very process of education,
knowledge, new approaches to ecology of development and growing up. Traditional teaching provides
little opportunity to create situations open for new interrelationships, various ways of observation, and
different orientation models. Eco-pedagogical competence applies to openness for new models and
solutions, for development of original ideas, and for ideas and models of more valuable life in the
future. Starting from the aspect of environmental pedagogy, the eco-pedagogical competence means
understanding, acceptance and action according to the eco-pedagogical interaction (a new and
different relationship between teachers and students), which is based on eco-communication.
Eco-pedagogical interaction among the participants in the educational process fosters a
constructive approach to the resolution of problems and conflicts in relations between teachers and
students, what is possible to solve with genuine, interpersonal communication. Teachers are expected
to develop relationships in which the students will not feel neglected, misunderstood, critically
evaluated, being able to start applying in practice knowledge, ideas and concepts adopted in the
formal education: ‘respect for the students’ needs’, ‘teaching with love’, ‘the atmosphere in the
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classroom’, ‘freedom of learning’, ‘humanistic education’, ‘a two-way communication’, ‘tolerance’,
‘partnership’. All this represents an alternative to the traditional need for the authority and expression
of power in the educational process.
Eco-communication should be understood as an opportunity for personal growth,
understanding and perception of themselves and the others. To communicate environmentally means
to respect oneself and the others, to fight for oneself and one’s own needs, without offending others. It
is ‘compassionate’, it reflects in the empathy, co-participation in the emotional experience that the
other person tells us. In the relationships between adults and children, the eco-communication
excludes ordering, fear of consequences or the feeling of guilt. It assumes a process of nonviolent
actions in the relations among adults and those who grow up, being based on challenges of mutual
understanding and respect, constructive solutions of disputes and conflicts, and the activity of all
participants in the process of education.
Understanding and attempt to achieve environmental communication assume respect for
major requirements placed on an equal basis before all participants of the pedagogical process:
changes in self-understanding, respect, tolerance, responsibility, equality, empathy, conflict resolution,
partnership, pluralism, and confrontation with reality.
Environmental education – from opardizing to the contemporary contents of sustainable
development
In its earlier reporting period (in the 1970’s), the environmental education has been
understood as a reaction to problems which can be marked as a ‘triangle of environmental problems’
(Figure 1)
Explosion of
Population
Exhausted
Resources
Environment Pollution
Figure 1: A classical triangle of environmental problems ‘Contents of jeopardizing’
While the classic ‘triangle of ecological problems’ basically contains the contents of vulnerability
(1. Pollution and destruction of the environment; 2. Wasting of limited resources; 3. Global expansion
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of a mankind), thus implicitly offering a reactive concept of action, the ‘triangle of sustainability’ is
represented with more contemporary contents ( Figure 2).
Ecology, economy and society have been holistically analyzed, with the rule that a positive
development in one area should be connected to the development in other areas. Indeed, jeopardizing
has been perceived in the concept of sustainability as well, but the advantage is given to reflection of
the future (Haan/Kuckartz 1996).
Economy
Society
Ecology
Figure 2: The triangle of sustainability ‘Contemporary Contents’
Required changes can occur in our conditions only with the engagement and participation of
all social groups, thus seeking a new form of participation. Citizens themselves feel a need to master
the competence of participation in the process of communication and decision-making (e.g.
independent evaluation and adoption of information, communication and cooperation skills, planning in
the complex systems ...). ‘Agenda 21’ (Chapter 36) requires ‘a new development trend towards the
sustainable development’; it has been considered that education is an important antecedent of
modeling of the society according to the sustainability principles.
The meaning of education is reflected not only in a need to change model of consumption of
(non)available resources and behavior towards the rules of the natural environment. The general
mental change has been emphasized, which could be efficient in the sense of sustainability. Thinking
in terms of reconcilability with available resources and nature, flexible and durable solution of
environmental dilemmas, and permanency of learning, should always be enhanced with the
appropriate measures of education and qualification.
Environmental education, which respects the concept of sustainability, can be outlined in the
following competencies:
- Communication competence - refers to a dialogue and communication with others in order to
jointly develop the culture of sustainability;
- Holistic competence;
- Competence of planning - an ability not to have linear thinking and planning within the
premises of sustainability and holism of culture and nature.
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- Competence of solidarity – contains normative of the sustainability concept of inter- and
intra- generational equity;
- Competence of motivation – an ability to motivate oneself and have a feeling of joy in
conducting one’s life within the premise of sustainability;
- Competence of thinking (reflexivity) – an ability of distanced thinking about the ruling culture
and its history, as well as an ability of self-distance and tolerance in the development of
ecologically oriented economic environment, which is the ideal with the orientation to the
future (Andevski, 2004, p.22).
Implementation of ideas of sustainable development in accordance with the rules of nature is
possible with the participation of a large number of people of all age groups. The focus is on education
of human resources, potentials available to man, such as: creativity and fantasy, intelligence and
critical reasoning, an ability of communication and cooperation.
The aim of sustainable development, which ensues possibilities to improve the living
conditions of people who live today, as well as in the near future, without a risk to jeopardize the
natural foundation of life, requires examination and different setting of educational activities. This
ethically dimensioned setting of aims describes the incoming path of global (World) solution of various
problems, which require a new way of thinking and new models of development. In this regard, in
Serbia, the emphasis is placed on additional training and advanced training of teachers, arrangement
of educational activities for different age groups of children and models of didactic materials which are
suitable for the holistic approach to education.
Global problem-solution requires experimentation and a dialogue in the ‘learning society’ in
which individuals discursively-controversially communicate about the basic aims and values, seek
ways of resolving the outstanding issues and problems, try and optimize alternative solutions.
Implementation of this is learnt in the process of teaching, in mutual interaction and communication, in
a dialogue among participants in the educational process, and among teachers and learners. This
leads to the need for closer determinations and definitions of environmental pedagogy, environmental
education, environmental learning, education for peace, democracy and civic tolerance, as well as to
attempts to find answers to the crisis which the mankind faces today. Today it is not easy to talk about
the role and tasks of education in the attempt to solve these problems. Education can be defined by
what it reproduces, sets, provides, how it communicates with the environment. It assumes the process
in which an individual, either a child or an adult, adopts knowledge, attitudes, and value orientations
which are typical for the environment. In Serbia, the tendency is to introduce ecological concepts into
the process of education understood in a broader sense (informal), and also within the system of
learning and teaching (the formal, institutionalized education). In this sense, the task of education is
not to interpret natural phenomena dogmatically and skeptically, but to establish a new relationship
between a man and the environment, where it is possible to ask questions and which can be
philosophically reflected.
Learning, i.e. willingness and ability for the lifelong learning, becomes a factor in innovations,
sustainable development, and environmental education. It has been repeatedly aroused in all phases
and aspects of life. Environmental education should make this process of searching - understanding solving, as well as the model of ‘learning of learning’, to be close, tangible and experiential. It primarily
applies to the construction more than to the development of new culture of learning with the innovative
forms and methods, new organization of teaching and learning, advanced development of humans in
function of sustainable development. Environmental education should develop the attitudes, values
and ways of behavior which will help individuals to get out of the environmental crisis and follow the
concepts of sustainability (Ibidem, p. 23.).
Ecological education implies modelling of one’s own environment, the power of understanding
of one’s surroundings, keeping the situation in one’s own hands. It spreads its influence on the
determination of the relationships between the organism and its environment, specifically the
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relationship between a man (me) and his (my) environment, as it happens between: in contact. M.
Bobber said: the meeting occurs between I and YOU, not here I am, there YOU are, subject - object,
rather than just on the verge of a contact, where we meet each other. This attitude leads to radical
changes in the act of education, in the relationship between teachers and learners. The boundaries
are deleted, the final knowledge is not recognized, and the one who transfers knowledge has
something to learn primarily from those whom he teaches!
These requirements impose the transformation and organization of environmental education
which must follow the adopted didactical aspects.
Didactical aspects of environmental education
The following didactical aspects should direct the contextual and methodical organization of
the learning process. At the same time, they describe the fundamental experiences of learning, and
they also apply to the multilateral dimensions of human abilities (perception, cooperation,
communication, and competence in action, planning, orientation...).
Environmental education and learning in its spreading and modeling of appropriate ‘human
resources’ should respect the following didactical aspects:
(1) learning oriented to the problem-solving,
(2) learning oriented to understanding,
(3) cooperative learning orientation,
(4) the application-oriented learning,
(5) learning and self-organization
(6) the integrity of learning (Haan 1995).
1. Learning by Problem-Solving
The concept of sustainability in the environmental education confronts the learner with an
abundance of new tasks and challenges for which there are no ready solutions, with the need to
develop competencies for a creative resolution of open and generally complex problems.
Learning by solving the problems in sustainable environmental education means the following:
- learning without efforts, with involvement of fantasy and creativity, as in the game, when
enhancing the play-associative and creative forms of learning,
- Learning by research (the research competence)
- Intelligent knowledge, including knowledge about the problem or the phenomenon; an ability to
reason regardless of differences and conflicting results of experiments; revealing the alternative
means and ways to solve problems, including the actual and potential alternative solutions;
- holistic thinking, which gives new impetus to a greater and overall view of reality. On one
hand, it is started from the immediate surroundings of a child in order to make distinctive regional
area, because of the children’s experiences and educational issues in these areas. On the other hand,
the tendency is to open views of the world;
- Anticipatory (foreseeable) thinking,
- Identification of opportunities, it is likely (probabilistic) thinking,
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- Creative problem-solving (individually, in tandem, in a team).
2. Learning oriented to understanding
Environmental education emphasizes a need for communication in interpersonal and
intercultural relationships and relations. It is constantly focused on ethical-oriented communication and
(self-) reflection, trying to merge fundamental common aims and values, wherever it hardly succeeds,
and where (still) there are open disputes. Despite the complex, global (World) situation and
challenges, abilities of (self-) reflection and communication are of extreme importance for the
ecological teaching. They apply to personal and cultural relationships with nature and the
contemporaries, and also to the review and reflection about one’s own lifestyle. The possibility of
communication does not depend, in fact, only on the linguistic competence and media equipment, but
also on the very culture in which we perceive ourselves and others. Higher (self) reflexive competence
creates better presumptions for successful consensus.
It is, therefore, the environmental teaching that attempts to develop the following skills and
attitudes:
- Communication and readiness to a dialogue,
- (Self-) reflection,
- Addressing and overcoming the conflicts
- An ability of perception,
- Analyzing, contemplation and an ability of (self-) criticism,
- Determination of one’s own point of view,
- Way of handling the risks and uncertainties,
- Communication based on the principles of ethical orientation and value attitudes (e.g. fairness,
responsibility)
- Inter-cultural orientation in communication,
- Tolerance,
- An ability to change roles and perspectives.
3. Cooperative orientation in environmental learning
It is not possible to solve the challenges and problems of sustainable development without
multiple competences and experiences of people, without an interdisciplinary and international joint
work. Developing and fostering the readiness and capacity for cooperation becomes one of the major
tasks of environmental education, being reflected in international and intercultural joint work, in the
developmental eco-projects which exceed limits, and through an appropriate exchange of information
and experience.
In addition to the direct joint work, the importance is given to various forms of informal
exchange of experiences (knowledge sharing), especially when people work on similar tasks
(coordination via Internet). Through common tasks, idea of solidarity, cohesion, and unity, the
cooperation opens a possibility of confronting a person with a failure, with the counter-blow which is
possible to get in the team work. All of that affects the emotional stabilization of experiences, which
can be realized only in the joint work.
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Cooperative environmental teaching particularly develops the following competencies and
attitudes:
- Readiness and capacity for international cooperation,
- Participation in the team work, i.e. readiness and ability of cooperation on the variable tasks and
roles,
- Use of different sources of learning, information and experiences,
- Readiness and ability to exchange experiences,
- Cooperation with experts.
4. Learning oriented to application
Only the practical implementation and application in different situations and areas of work, an
attempt to present the results in public, their potential public (non)acceptance, may prove readiness of
environmental education for the sustainability concept. Environmental education, in this sense,
includes the active guidance in a form of practical learning, participation in a form of political learning
and a relationship towards an individual experience (situational learning).
Practical, activity orientation of environmental teaching is equally general as the general
(public) conversation and acceptance of participation which we want to develop in the process of
environmental education. Concrete implementation must be related to the influence on further
planning and decision- making. Participation is directed to the informal and institutionalized discussion,
such as at school, in the community, in conversation, when creating rules. The participation implies an
active public work and work through media. Mobility in the local community should be an integral part
of all practical environmental intentions and the students should be appropriately prepared for this in
the process of education.
At the same time, learning is also associated with positive examples and powerful, personal
experiences. Positive examples are always the most convincing arguments. Practical learning
provides concrete life situations, political learning results in the active participation, the examples of a
‘good practice’ make the learning process more reliable and serious. Environmental education
reconciles a practical, participatory learning, learning applying to a real life. Essential competencies
that could be distinguished here are the following:
- Ability of decision, which can be successful when plans and theoretical considerations have
not been completed yet, or where there is no an explicit situation (for example, in various
complex and risky situations),
- Competence of action, which is being developed as a practical ability and readiness for
application in different areas and life situations (at workplace, at home, in a community ...),
- Ability of participation, a readiness and ability to participate in the concrete planning,
programming and projects, in full and responsible joint decision-making and modeling. Also,
an ability of taking part in public decisions, public opinion and public presentation of results.
5. Self-organization of learning
Environmental education describes a way to the ‘learning society’ which members are capable
for continuous learning and directing their own learning process. More than ever, learning should form
a self-organized process of continuous improvement. The presumption is that there is a permanent joy
in learning, as well as connection of positive experiences with the ability and capability to learn. At the
same time, cognitive and challenging tasks intended for individual persons or groups should be
related, opening the possibilities for their independent and self-responsible processing.
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Learning should not be firmly related to the results, ways of solutions, as it was the case by
now. However, the process of independent searching should be emphasized. Environmental
education is not organized according to the concepts of ‘didactics of production’, but it requires a
‘didactics of opportunities’ which stimulates an individual focus and ways in the process of learning, as
well as the confidence in one’s own ability to learn. Self-organization of learning involves selfunderstandable dealing with errors and difficulties, which represent more a charm of the research than
a failure of a learner.
The challenges of the concept of sustainable development are found on daily basis in all the
phases of life, work, and free time, and they are always new in some way. Therefore, the process of
environmental education can be reduced neither to formal learning in educational institutions (or
outside) nor even to close learning programs. Permanent education is a challenge, but it is also a
hallmark of the quality of life.
Important components of the self-organized learning apply to a large extent to the structural
characteristics of personality, emotional and ethical orientation. Therefore they require a careful
formulation, since they are not subject to direct pedagogical influence. They are the following:
-Self-management of the learning process - an ability to independently plan and organize the
process of learning and work, include previous sources of help, prepare the results of work for
presentation and evaluation, in terms of compatible aims and tasks;
- Competence of evaluation –represents a critical assessment and use of results from the
process of learning and work;
- Permanent learning – represents a readiness and ability of the perception of learning as
symbolized experience of the quality of life, learning that extends to the entire life of
individuals in different places and from different causes;
- Competence of planning, organizing, directing the learning process;
- Development of personal responsibility;
- Ability for ‘learning of learning;
- Readiness for carrying out independently selected tasks.
6. Integrity of environmental education
The integral environmental education attempts to connect different possible experiences and
professional approaches (interdisciplinary aspect). At the same time, it introduces ‘to the game’
multiple individual perceptions, experiences, interests and competencies. Plural learning means that
different contents and methods may be realized in the learning process.
Environmental education uncovers its desire to be integral in finding a single event or a real
situation. This finding can be manifested emotionally: as a fear, lack, sympathy, or more rational: as
knowledge, recognition or attention. As a rule, finding a situation as it reflects a subjective interest that
spills out of the daily experience. The finding is almost always very serious, and dynamic. In reality of
today’s schools, the finding is often hidden, not obvious, and it must be revealed and developed.
Important competencies are the following:
- Comprehensive ability of perception by gaining experience that can be detected via phenomena and
problems in different dimensions and meanings;
- Constructive dealing with comprehensiveness, i.e. an ability of association of different methods,
ways of observation and competencies when searching for solutions to the problem;
- Global perspective, which are related to possible actions on the global development through local
experience of the living world, and specific problems and ways of solving problems;
- Integral learning (‘with head, heart and hands’);
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- Plural Learning (multiplicity of didactic-methodological approaches and learning);
- Global Learning;
- Ability for comprehensive cognitive perceptions and experiences;
- Association of hermeneutical-interpretative, social- and natural- scientific, economic, technological
and practical, aesthetic and other competencies and experiences;
- Establishment of global relationships and connections.
Innovative forms of learning and procedures: pedagogy of pluralism
Environmental education that attempts to orient towards the didactic aspects must accepted
and develop innovative methods and forms of learning organization. Psychological researches show
how important it is for individuals to recognize their special forces, capabilities, interests, and develop
a positive feeling of their own competence and independent action through them (A. Banduras).
Therefore, the organization of learning should more strongly refer to comprehensiveness of human
motives, interests, and competencies. This is the way of how very different motives and interests for
the ideals of sustainable development can be established: love for animals and plants, critical attitude
for consumption and the consumer mentality, relying on the traditional savings and carefulness,
individual awareness of health, fascination with technological innovations which serve for preservation
of the natural balance.
Pedagogy of pluralism should open and offer a variety of different approaches and methodical
means of processing, as well as appropriate tasks. The learning practice in many schools in Serbia is
still the pressure of the teaching staff (everybody is dealing with the same tasks and solutions given in
advance all at the same time). It is inefficient and often de-motivating for students, and it often leads to
wasting of ‘human resources’. Plurality of methodical forms of work, access to work and observations,
can be made ‘experiential’ in various ways: poets and artists have different approaches to the
solutions of problems than scientists, technicians, programmers, or journalists. The process of learning
should be more ‘decentralized’ and ‘desynchronized’ in future.
Introduction of environmental issues into the teaching process takes place according to
programs and activities in the regular teaching, extracurricular activities, and free students’ activities,
as well as in the teachers’ education. Hence, there is ample room for opening of the new approach to
the education process when it comes to environmental education and things related to it. A social
moment we are all ‘found by’ opens the possibility for development and fostering of ecological,
anthropological and deeply humane messages of self-esteem, communication and cooperation, at
schools of all levels of education, from the earliest age. It is expected from our experts and employees
in education to courageously accept changes of elementary-school (and other) curricula, methods of
teaching and presentation of teaching material which reflects the human relationship of a man and his
environment.
Summatrion of sustainable environmental education
In order to develop its full potential, environmental education must be systematic. It requires
the agreement of responsible, interested parties and participants in the environmental education
policy. Tasks which must be fulfilled apply to the following:
1. Development of a strategy of expansion and implementation of environmental thinking and action;
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2. Implementation of models of good practice as a new orientation of shaping the contents of the
innovative policy of environmental education.
3. Use of creative potential of environmental education for innovations in the reform of the education
system;
4. Integration of didactically formulated environmental education in eco-political federal, provincial and
municipal programs.
Ecological education in Serbia will fulfill its mission if it starts the active eco-political change of
awareness and behavior of individuals and if it develops new understanding of educational process
itself. These aims are not going to be achieved with traditional, ‘from above’ set methods of
information and explanations, but with changed teaching and learning towards the criteria of
anticipation, participation and retinitis.
Ecologization of education in Serbia is increasingly viewed as a new paradigm, a trend of
development and modernization of the educational system. Many questions asked in this regard and
initiated at the level of the international community, still have been studied. People continue to search
for the best solutions which should best respond to the outstanding environmental needs and
demands of the times in which we live, within the educational process. Experts in education are
expected to more courageously accept and answer the time which ‘have found’ all of us. Ecological
competencies provide opportunities and challenges for those who are ready for them.
References:
- Andevski, M., (2004) Ekološko obrazovanje – od brige za okolinu do održivog razvoja. Učiteljski
fakultet u Užicu. Univerzitet u Kragujevcu. Užice;
- Andevski, M., (2007a) Paradigma održivog razvoja u svakodnevici čovekovog delovanja,
Međunarodna konferencija Životna sredina i održivi razvoj, Ekologica, Posebno tematsko izdanje,
13,str. 97-105;
- Andevski,M., (2007b) Responsibility towards the future in the paradigm of sustained development
,6 th International Conference of PHD Students, University of Miskolc, Hungary, 12 – 18 august,07,
Humanities, p.1- 6;
- Andevski, M., (2008) A Life-Style autonomy, Zbornik radova Učiteljskog fakulteta, broj 10 (2008),
Užice, str. 133-144;
- Club of Rome., (1978) Das menschliche Dilemma;
- Enquete-Kommission, Schutz des Menschen und der Umwelt,des Deutschen Bundestages (Hrsg)
(1994), Die industriegesellschaft gestalten. Bonn;
- Haan, G.de., (1995) Perspektiven der Umwelterziehung / Umweltbildung. U: DGU-Nachrichten,
br.12, s. 19-30, Hamburg;
- Haan, G. De., Kuckartz,U., (1996) Umweltbewusstsein. Denken und Handeln in Umweltkriesen,
Opladen;
- Hart, R., (1997) Children’s Participation. The Theories Development and Environment Care,
London;
- IBM-Jugendstudie (1995) Wir sind o.k! Stimmungen, Einstellungen, Orientierungen der Jugend in
den 90er Jahren. Inst. für empirische Psychologie, Freiburg;
- Napori Ujedinjenih nacija za bolju životnu sredinu 21. veka, (1992) Rezultati Svetskog samita u Rio
de Žaneiru, Brazil, 1992. godine, Savezno ministarstvo za životnu sredinu, Beograd.
- Preisendörfer, P., (1993) Der Bequemlichkeit erlegen. U: Politische Ökologie, Heft 33, München;
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- Reusswig, F., (1994) Lebensstile und Ökologie, Frankfurt a.M;
- Schratz, M.,(1996) Gemeinsam Schule lebendig gestalten, Weinheim/Basel.
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