Kazakhstan in Antiquity: From Stone Tools to Steppe Empires

1.

Astana IT University
Course - History of Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan in Antiquity: Tools, Sites, and
Steppe Civilisation
Archaeological Evidence from the Stone Age to Early Iron Age Empires.
Key Inquiry
"How did toolmaking and site adaptations build the foundations of steppe statehood?"

2.

Archaeological Roadmap
Chronology of Antiquity in Kazakhstan
Lower Paleolithic (c. 1M-300,000 BCE)
Neolithic (6th-4th mil. BCE)
Pebble choppers; earliest stone
industries.
Domestication of sheep; polished stone Core Research Themes
tools.
•Tool Production Techniques
Middle Paleolithic (300,000-40,000 BCE)
Eneolithic (3700-3100 BCE)
•Settlement Structures
Levallois technique; specialized flakes.
Botai horse domestication; copper
usage.
•Animal Domestication
•Metallurgy Evolution
Upper Paleolithic (40,000-12,000 BCE)
Bronze Age (late 3rd-early 1st mill. BCE)
Prismatic blades; ritual burials; bone
crafting.
metallurgy; Andronovo culture;
chariotry.
Mesolithic (12/10,000-6,000 BCE)
Early Iron Age (1st mill. BCE)
Invention of the bow; microlithic tools.
Saka statehood; complex nomadic
empires.
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•Foundations of Statehood
Summary
Transition from lithic mastery to the
complex social stratification of the
Saka empires.

3.

Lower Paleolithic
The Karatau Culture: Borykazgan, Tanirkazgan, and Kemer
Environment & Ecology
During the Lower Paleolithic, the region featured expansive savanna-like
grasslands, supporting diverse fauna and early hominin dispersal.
Hominins utilized the direct hard-hammer method—striking one pebble against
another—to produce functional cutting edges.
Core Industry
River Pebble Chopper
Worked on one side using direct hardhammer percussion. Found in the Karatau
Mountains near water corridors.
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Site Function
Tool Assemblage
Open-air seasonal camps.
Strategically located near
river gravel bars for raw
materials and reliable water
sources.
• Crude Bifaces
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• Heavy Scrapers
• Unifacial Choppers

4.

Middle Paleolithic
Technological Shift: The Levallois Technique
The Middle Paleolithic era marks a revolutionary transition in stone
processing. Toolmakers began preparing stone cores specifically to
produce pre-shaped flakes of predictable size and sharpness.
Primary Archaeological Sites
Obalysay, Kudaikol, Semizbuga (Central Kazakhstan), and Shakpak-ata (Mangystau
Peninsula).
Natural Core
Levallois Flakes
Core Refinement
Secondary Retouch
The process of chipping edges to sharpen
or shape lithic tools for high-precision tasks
like scraping and piercing.
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Specialized Tool Assemblage
• Hide Scrapers • Piercing Points • Burins • Hunting Knives
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5.

Upper Paleolithic Period
c. 40,000 – 10,000 BCE: Technology and Material Culture
The shift toward complex toolkits involved organic materials like bone
and antler. Bone needles with eyes, awls, and antler points enabled the
production of tailored fur and leather clothing, crucial for glacial survival.
Adaptive strategies included the construction of semi-subterranean huts
utilizing timber, mammoth bones, and animal skins for structural
integrity.
Archaeological Evidence
Lithic Technology
Prismatic Blade Cores
Bone Awls
• Semi-subterranean pit-dwellings.
Preserved Assemblage
• Tailored winter garments identified
through micro-wear on needles.
Long, thin, razor-sharp blades produced using softhammer percussion (antler or bone),
demonstrating high standardization and efficiency.
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6.

Upper Paleolithic
Sites, Rituals, and Early Spiritual Beliefs
Beyond the Zaysan Basin, habitation networks
flourished at sites like Ashysai, Kanai, and Peschera,
marking a peak in Lithic Blue-Gray technology.
Core Significance
Early Spiritual
Beliefs
Primary Site
Ushbulak Complex (Zaysan Basin)
Transition from survival
to symbolic expression
and ritual structure.
Unique 6-meter sequence of strata; characterized
by exceptionally rich blade industries.
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Ritual Evidence
• Red Ochre Burials: Symbolic
representation of life and vitality.
• Animal Tooth Pendants: Personal
adornment and hunting ties.
• Bone Bead Necklaces: Evidence of
refined crafting skills.

7.

The Mesolithic Period
Climatic Shifts & Technological Adaptation (10,000-5,000 BCE)
As glaciers retreated and megafauna like mammoths
went extinct, hunters transitioned to stalking fast game:
saiga, deer, and wild horses.
The invention of the bow and arrow provided the
necessary speed and range for this new environment,
marking a revolutionary shift in hunting technology.
Material Culture
Microlithic Composite Tools
Modular blades (1-3cm) slotted into bone or
wood shafts with pitch, creating efficient,
reparable weaponry.
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1-3cm
Strategic Advantage
• Increased projectile velocity.
Geometric Blades
• Extended range for agile game.
Standardized microlith inserts.
• Modular design for field repair.
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8.

The Neolithic Revolution
Foundation for Sedentary Life
Economy & Transition
The Neolithic era signifies a radical economic shift: the transition from
hunting and gathering to the active breeding of livestock and systematic
plant cultivation.
This productive economy allowed for more secure food supplies, leading
directly to the establishment of the first permanent settlements.
NEW
Material Culture
Polished Lithic Toolkits
Polished axes, celts, adzes, and rotary querns crafted
through grinding, drilling, sawing, and polishing.
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Lifestyle
Sedentary Foundation
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Technological Innovation
Fired Pottery
Essential for boiling food and secure, long-term storage
of agricultural surplus.
Hard Stone Working
Techniques: Grinding, drilling, sawing, and high-gloss
polishing.

9.

Neolithic Period
Regional Cultures of Kazakhstan
Mahandzhar Culture
Atbasar Culture
Kelteminar Culture
Karaungur Cave
Turgai Region
Northern Region
Aral / Western Regions
Southern Region
• Decorated combimpressed pottery.
• Specialized bifacial
flint arrowheads.
• Fishing settlements
at aquatic sites.
• Discovery of polished
stone celts.
• Initial stages of
animal keeping.
• Strong continued
reliance on hunting.
• Characteristic roundbottomed pots.
• Domesticated sheep
and goat remains.
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10.

Lithic Technology Evolution
Sequence of Material Progress in Central Asia
Lower Paleolithic
Pebble Choppers: Crude single-face tools.
Middle Paleolithic
Levallois Flakes: Core-preparation technology.
Upper Paleolithic
Prismatic Blades: Standardized efficient slicing.
Mesolithic Era
Geometric Microliths: Modular composite
tools.
Neolithic Period
Polished Celts: Ground axes for forestry.
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Key Insight
Tools transitioned from primitive, single-purpose river rocks into
highly complex, modular, and specialized systems mirroring the
rising social and economic complexity of the steppe.
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11.

The Eneolithic and Botai
c. 3700–3100 BCE: Transition and Settlement
The Eneolithic marks a critical technological shift: native
copper was hammered into artifacts alongside established
flint toolkits.
This era at Botai is globally renowned for the earliest
evidence of horse domestication, fundamentally altering
human mobility across the Central Asian steppe.
Key Site Discovery
Botai Settlement (North KZ)
Located on the Imanburlyq River, this 15-hectare
site reveals the origins of settled steppe life.
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150+
Pit-Dwellings
Polygonal timber architecture.
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Material Finds
• Incised pottery with geometric
motifs
• Specialized bone harpoons
• Anthropomorphic figurines

12.

The Eneolithic Revolution
Scientific Evidence for Horse Domestication at Botai
Impact: Transformed steppe mobility. The domestication of the horse
allowed for the exploitation of the vast open steppe, revolutionizing
transportation, communication, and warfare.
This transition represents a fundamental shift from hunter-gatherer
paradigms to complex pastoralist social structures.
Primary Artifact
Osteological & Chemical Markers
Scientific validation from Botai (c. 3700–3100
BCE) proving earliest known bridling and dairy
consumption.
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99%
Horse Bones
Total faunal remains at Botai,
indicating near-total economic
reliance.
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Scientific Verification
• Dental bit-wear proves bridling
and control.
• Pottery lipid analysis found mare's
milk (koumiss) residues.

13.

Bronze Age Horizon
The Andronovo Horizon (2nd Mill. BCE)
The Andronovo horizon represents a complex of Bronze Age
cultures across the Eurasian steppe, progressing through three
distinct stages: Nurinsk, Atasu, and Begazy-Dandybai.
The economy integrated intensive livestock breeding of cattle,
horses, and sheep with early forms of floodplain farming,
fostering settled and semi-settled communities.
Material Culture
Socketed Bronze Spears & Sickles
Advanced metallurgy enabled the production
of specialized tools and weapons, signifying a
shift in both warfare and agriculture.
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Pottery & Ornamentation
Major Stages
• Solar motifs including the swastika,
representing ideological continuity.
Nurinsk • Atasu • Begazy
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• Ceramic vessels with distinct
geometric meanders.

14.

The Bronze Age
Metallurgy and Proto-Urban Centers
Metallurgical centers transformed the Kazakh steppe into a
primary industrial hub of antiquity. Large-scale mining at
Jezkazgan produced an estimated 100,000 tons of copper.
This economic base supported the rise of proto-cities like
Kent, characterized by stone fortifications and complex
metal foundries.
Mining & Extraction
Jezkazgan Copper Basin
Massive scale production involving firesetting technology and specialized charcoal
shaft furnaces for smelting.
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~100K
Tons Produced
Copper output of the
Jezkazgan basin.
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Strategic Settlements
• Kent: 30-hectare proto-city with
stone walls and foundries.
• Arkaim & Sintashta: Fortified towns
with chariot workshops.

15.

UNESCO World Heritage Site
The Tamgaly Petroglyph Sanctuary (Zhetysu)
Tamgaly is home to more than 5,000 petroglyphs. The carvings
offer a unique glimpse into the spiritual life and social structures
of the Bronze Age communities in the Zhetysu region.
Special emphasis is placed on imagery of sun-headed deities and
cosmic entities, alongside naturalistic depictions of sacred bulls
and hunters.
Sanctuary Detail
Bronze Age Rock Art
A religious complex featuring sun-head
deities, masked dancers, and sacred bulls
representing ancient steppe rituals.
5,000+
Total Carvings
Sanctuary Density
Technological Symbols
War Chariots & Prestige
• Two-wheeled vehicles with multi-spoked
wheels.
• Horses harnessed in pairs; used as elite
prestige symbols.
Chariots in rock art represent elite prestige symbols and
cosmic vehicles.
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16.

Early Iron Age
The Saka Confederation: Society and Power
Warfare & Armament
Social Hierarchy
Political Order
Gender & Status
Military Elite
The Four Estates
Governance Structure
Women in Society
• Iron akinakes swords
• Trilobate arrows
Saka society was stratified
into distinct groups:
• Powerful reflex bows
• Kings: Military leaders
Power was not absolute;
the authority of kings was
balanced by:
Women enjoyed
exceptionally high social
and military status.
• Batyrs: The warrior class
• Popular assemblies
• Priests: Guardians of
ritual
• Councils of Elders
• Renowned commanders:
Tomyris and Zarina.
• Herders: The economic
base
This "Military Democracy"
ensured tribal
participation in state
decisions.
Burials confirm women
were buried with weapons
and gold ornaments,
reflecting elite rank.

17.

The Early Iron Age
The Issyk Kurgan: The Golden Man (1969)
The ceremonial 70cm high headdress depicts tulpars (winged
horses) and the 'World Tree', symbolizing the Sakas' complex
cosmological structure.
Significant discovery of the silver Issyk Bowl, inscribed with
26 runic characters, provides concrete evidence of early
literacy on the steppe.
Saka Material Culture
Warrior Prince Burial
Undisturbed royal burial discovered near
Almaty. The prince wore armor adorned
with over 4,000 gold plaques.
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4,000
+
Gold Plaques
Warrior's ceremonial armor.
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Archaeological Significance
• Issyk Bowl Inscription
Indicates high-level administrative
complexity and early runic script
usage.

18.

Early Iron Age Art & Ritual
Animal Style Motifs and the Berel Kurgans
The "Animal Style" is defined by dynamic scenes of
predators (leopards, wolves, griffins) attacking prey (stags,
ibex).
These elaborate visual narratives represent the struggle of
life forces and provided a complex symbolic language for the
Saka elite across the Great Steppe.
Ritual Role
Mythical Guides
Excavation Site
Berel Kurgans (East Kazakhstan)
High-altitude burial mounds where permafrost
preserved rare organic artifacts: textiles, wood carvings,
and skin.
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Animal motifs served as
spiritual protectors for the
transition into the afterlife.
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Sacrificial Evidence
• Horses sacrificed with wooden
deer antlers and feline masks.
• Preserved horse hair, muscles, and
elaborate wooden harness sets.

19.

Early Iron Age Empires
The Huns: Steppe Superpower
The Huns, emerging from the Xiongnu confederation,
revolutionized steppe warfare. Modu Chanyu established a
strict decimal military system that centralized control.
Their military supremacy relied on the recurve bow and the
psychological impact of whistling arrows, used for signaling
and intimidation.
10-1K
Polychrome Art
Hunnic Gold Earring
Exquisite jewelry featuring gold filigree wire and inlaid
red garnets, defining the elite material culture of the
Huns.
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Decimal System
Military Organization.
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Great Migration
• Originated in the Talas region
(South Kazakhstan).
• Massive westward expansion from
Central Asia to Europe.

20.

Late Antiquity Societies
Comparative Study: Wusun, Kangly, and Regional Symbiosis
Usuns (Zhetysu)
Kangly (Syr Darya)
Economic Symbiosis
Sophisticated pastoralists who
integrated irrigation agriculture
into their seasonal cycles.
Mastered urban trade centers
such as Bityan, controlling
strategic Oasis territories.
A mutually beneficial trade of
nomadic animal products for
urban grain and metalwork.
Key Discovery: Kargaly Diadem
Role: Silk Road Economic Node
Synthesis: Steppe as Connector
Archaeological Analysis: The Kargaly Diadem (Zhetysu) • Representing shamanic winged horses and steppe mythology.
• History of Kazakhstan
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