ExPhil Understanding, examining and constructing arguments

1. ExPhil Understanding, examining and constructing arguments

2. Moral arguments

Characteristics of a moral argument
– Similar structure to other arguments
– Concludes with moral recommendation/claim
Characteristics of moral recommendations
– Often make use of evaluative words:
ought; should; right; wrong
BUT – often implicit rather than explicit; can make it hard to
identify the argument being made. AND – evaluative claims
often appear in other types of argument.

3. Analysing moral arguments

–Identify final + intermediate conclusions
–Identify reasons
–Identify + assess assumptions
–Identify moral concepts/principles
–Identify and evaluate analogies

4. Moral or prudential?

• Hypothetical imperative
– If you want X, then you must/should/ought to do Y
Otherwise, X will not happen – no particular value in Y
itself
• Categorical imperative
– You must/should/ought to do Y
Because Y is worthwhile in itself
All ethical theories/moral recommendations rely at
some point on a categorical imperative.
EG utilitarianism: ‘If you want X to happen, do Y’ – this is
a hypothetical imperative, but it is based on a
categorical imperative: ‘maximise happiness’

5. Which are the moral recommendations?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
You want to live as long as possible, so take plenty
of exercise.
Look after your mother when she is ill.
No-one should drink and drive
If you want to get high grades, make sure you
attend your classes.
Do not hit your children.
If you want to avoid getting points on your licence,
don’t drink and drive.
1, 4 and 6 are all conditional: they rest on assumptions, eg that you want
certain things. If you say you don’t in fact want these things, the
recommendations would have no force.
2,3 and 5 do not rely on any additional assumptions – they simply state that
something should or should not be done.

6.

–
–
–
–
–
Identify final + intermediate conclusions
Identify reasons
Identify + assess assumptions
Identify moral concepts/principles
Identify and evaluate analogies
Foxhunting and angling are similar in some respects. They are both done by human beings
for their own enjoyment, and in both cases, an animal is made to suffer.
The fact that people disagree about moral matters is not a good reason for believing that
there can be no rational discussion about morals. Scientists often disagree about
scientific matters. This does not lead us to believe that there is no possibility of rational
discussion between scientists.
A mouse is not a human being. Therefore there is no scientific justification for
experimenting on mice to find out things about people.
It is argued, possibly with some justification, that skinny models provide unhealthy images
for adolescents. But this does not mean that they should be criticised for presenting this
image. No supermodel is chastised for smoking, a habit that is far more likely to kill her,
and her admirers, than slimness. Nor do we persecute ballerinas, many of whom are not
just anorexic, but crippled.

7. Reductio ad absurdum

It is wrong to destroy anything that has the potential for human life
Embryos and foetuses have the potential for human life
Therefore it is wrong to abort foetuses or destroy embryos
It is wrong to destroy anything that has the potential for human lilfe
Embryos and foetuses have the potential for human life
Each cell of the human body has the potential for human life (through
reproductive cloning)
Therefore it is wrong to destroy a single cell of the human body
But this is absurd!
Therefore, it is NOT wrong to destroy all things that have the potential
for human life

8.

Necessary and sufficient conditions
Necessary: A necessary condition for some state of affairs S is
a condition that must be satisfied in order for S to obtain.
EG a necessary condition for being bilingual is to speak one
language.
Sufficient: A sufficient condition for some state of affairs S is a
condition that, if satisfied, guarantees that S obtains.
EG a sufficient condition for being bilingual is to speak two
languages.

9.

10.

True or false?
1. x's being an equilateral rectangle is a necessary condition for
x's being a square.
2. x's being a female is a necessary condition for x's being a
mother.
3. x's being greater than 15 is a sufficient condition for x's being
less than 20.
4. x's being a mother is a sufficient condition for x's being a
female.
5. x's being less than 20 is a sufficient condition for x's being
greater than 15.
6. x's having two arms is a necessary condition for x's being a
human being.
7. x's being less than 12 is a necessary condition for x's being
less than 20.
8. x's being a female is a sufficient condition for x's being a
mother.
9. x's having two arms is a sufficient condition for x's being a
human being.
10. x's being an equilateral rectangle is a sufficient condition for
x's being a square.

11.

Task:
Draw up a list of necessary and/or sufficient conditions required
in order to live a flourishing life… be prepared to defend your
choices. Remember necessary conditions have to be necessary.
Finding a sufficient condition may not be possible, but see if you
can identify any contenders.
E.G.
Education is a necessary condition for a flourishing life
Being a parent is a sufficient condition for a flourishing life