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1.

LECTURE · PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW
Sources of IL — III
General principles, soft law,
jus cogens & hierarchy
Article 38(1)(c)(d) · VCLT 53–64 · Erga omnes · ILC 2022
Academic Lecture Series

2.

OUTLINE
Lecture Contents
Five parts — lecture + seminar
01
03
Framework
Recap of Art 38 + place of «third-tier» sources.
Art 38(1)(c) — «civilised nations» clause.
Subsidiary means
Jus cogens + erga omnes
Judicial decisions and doctrine (Art 38(1)(d)).
05
02
General principles
04
Peremptory norms, universal obligations.
Soft law, hierarchy, seminar
Soft law + hierarchy + ILC 2022 discussion.
Sources of IL III · General Principles · Soft Law · Jus Cogens
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3.

PART I
Framework
Article 38 recap · Beyond treaty and custom

4.

CHAPTER 01 · ART 38
Article 38(1) ICJ Statute — recap
The classic — though incomplete — catalogue of sources
ARTICLE 38(1)
The Court, whose function is to decide in accordance with international law such disputes as are submitted to it, shall apply:
(a) Conventions
(b) Custom
International conventions establishing rules expressly recognized by the contesting
International custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law.
states.
(c) General principles
(d) Subsidiary means
The general principles of law recognized by civilised nations — today's lecture.
Judicial decisions and teachings of the most highly qualified publicists.
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5.

CHAPTER 01 · BEYOND
Beyond treaty and custom
Why «third-tier» sources still matter — and what Art 38 doesn't say
GAPS AND ADDITIONS
Article 38 is not exhaustive. Modern IL includes concepts that transcend its scheme — jus cogens, erga omnes, unilateral acts, soft law,
resolutions of IOs.
General principles
Subsidiary means
Fill gaps in treaty + custom; ensure completeness of legal system («non liquet»
Judicial decisions + doctrine as tools of identification and interpretation.
avoided).
Jus cogens
Soft law
Not a «source» but a special quality of some norms — supreme normative rank.
Non-binding but influential — bridges the gap between politics and hard law.
Sources of IL III · General Principles · Soft Law · Jus Cogens
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6.

PART II
General principles of law
Art 38(1)(c) · «Civilised nations» · Categories · ICJ practice

7.

CHAPTER 02 · DEFINITION
What are «general principles of law»?
Principles common to major legal systems of the world
WORKING DEFINITION
Legal principles that are common to the major legal systems of the world (in foro domestico) and, through this
comparative common ground, can be transposed to the international plane to fill gaps or guide interpretation.
Gap-filling function
Comparative method
Auxiliary or autonomous?
Ensure the Court is never forced into non liquet — a
Derived by comparing national legal systems —
Debate: are they only fallback, or genuine
decision that «there is no law».
«induction» from below.
autonomous source of IL?
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8.

CHAPTER 02 · HISTORY
«Civilised nations» · a contested phrase
A colonial anachronism — or a term of art that still matters?
ORIGIN · PCIJ STATUTE 1920
Drafted at a time when only certain states were considered «civilised». Committee of Jurists (1920) intended a functional term — legal
systems developed enough to yield general principles.
Original view
Modern reading
Reflects 19th-c. imperial mindset — colonised peoples excluded from law-making.
Term now covers all states — every legal system is «civilised» for this purpose.
TWAIL critique
Redrafting proposals
Third World Approaches: still bears colonial residue — Western systems privileged.
Some argue phrase should be replaced (e.g., «community of nations») — ILC 2022
uses «community of nations».
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9.

CHAPTER 02 · CATEGORIES
Categories of general principles
ILC Draft Conclusions on General Principles (2023 provisional)
Category 1
Category 2
Common to national systems
Formed within the IL system itself
Derived from the major legal systems of the world — «in foro domestico»
Principles that arise directly at the international level, without domestic
transposition.
analogue.
THREE FUNCTIONAL TYPES
Procedural — audi alteram partem
Substantive — good faith, equity
Systemic — pacta sunt servanda
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10.

CHAPTER 02 · EXAMPLES
Examples of general principles
Standard catalogue from ICJ jurisprudence and doctrine
Good faith
Estoppel
Res judicata
Audi alteram partem
Bona fides — Nuclear Tests (1974).
Preclusion — Temple of Preah Vihear
Finality — Genocide (Bosnia v. Serbia,
«Hear both sides» — procedural fairness.
(1962).
2007).
Equity infra legem
Nemo judex in causa sua
Reparation for wrongs
Circumstantial evidence
Equity within law — North Sea (1969).
No one is a judge in his own cause.
Chorzów Factory (1928) principle.
Corfu Channel (1949).
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11.

PCIJ · SERIES A No. 17
Case · Chorzów Factory (PCIJ, 1928)
Germany v. Poland · the foundation of state reparation
FAMOUS DICTUM · P. 47
«It is a principle of international law, and even a general conception of law, that any breach of an engagement involves an obligation to
make reparation».
Facts
Principle affirmed
Poland expropriated German-owned nitrate factory in Chorzów — Germany sought
Reparation must «wipe out all the consequences of the illegal act» — restitutio in
reparation.
integrum.
General principle status
Citation
Court expressly labelled reparation obligation a «general conception of law».
PCIJ Series A No. 17 (1928) · https://www.icj-cij.org/pcij (predecessor court).
Sources of IL III · General Principles · Soft Law · Jus Cogens
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12.

CHAPTER 02 · ILC
ILC on general principles (Marcelo Vázquez-Bermúdez)
Draft Conclusions on General Principles of Law — adopted on first reading (2023)
AUTHORITATIVE MODERN RESTATEMENT
Adopted by ILC on first reading in 2023. Replaces «civilised nations» with «community of nations»; clarifies two categories of general
principles.
Conclusion 3
Conclusion 4
Recognises two categories: those derived from national systems, and those formed
Identification of first category — via comparative analysis of national legal systems.
within IL.
Conclusion 7
Conclusion 10
Identification of second category — arises from a wide acceptance in the community
Non-hierarchical relationship with treaties and CIL — all three interact and can
of nations.
supplement each other.
Sources of IL III · General Principles · Soft Law · Jus Cogens
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13.

PART III
Subsidiary means
Judicial decisions · Doctrine · ILC · Expert bodies

14.

CHAPTER 03 · ART 38(1)(d)
Article 38(1)(d) and Article 59
Subsidiary means — text and constraint
ART 38(1)(d)
ARTICLE 59
«Subsidiary means»
No stare decisis
Subject to Article 59
Formal constraint
«Judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of
«The decision of the Court has no binding force except between the parties
the various nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law».
and in respect of that particular case» — formally no doctrine of precedent.
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15.

CHAPTER 03 · PRECEDENT
ICJ practice · de facto precedent
Formally no precedent — but in reality, «jurisprudence constante»
PRACTICE VS. TEXT
Despite Article 59, ICJ consistently cites its own prior decisions — «jurisprudence constante». Judges seek coherence and predictability.
Self-citation
Other tribunals
ICJ regularly cites Barcelona Traction, Nicaragua, North Sea etc. as authoritative
PCA, ITLOS, WTO panels, ad hoc tribunals also cite ICJ — de facto influence beyond
statements.
Art 59.
Distinguishing
«Judicial legislation»
Court can distinguish or depart from prior decisions — but rarely does so overtly.
Some judgments effectively create new rules — e.g., North Sea's «short period»
thesis.
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16.

CHAPTER 03 · DOCTRINE
Doctrine · writings of publicists
Scholars as «subsidiary means» — a diminished but persistent role
«MOST HIGHLY QUALIFIED PUBLICISTS»
Historical role: Grotius, Vattel, Wheaton, Oppenheim. Modern role: institutional works + collective doctrine (ILC, IDI, ILA) more cited than
individual authors.
Individual authors
Collective bodies
Historically decisive — Grotius (1625), Vattel (1758) shaped whole doctrines.
Institut de Droit International, ILA — codify + progressively develop IL.
Casebooks + textbooks
Dissenting/separate opinions
Persuasive in identifying state practice + summarising jurisprudence.
Judges' own writings — hybrid between judicial decision and doctrine.
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17.

CHAPTER 03 · MODERN
Modern «subsidiary means»
Beyond individual scholars — institutional voices
ILC Draft Articles
UN Human Rights Committee
Regional courts
Highly authoritative — VCLT, ARSIWA, Draft
General Comments on ICCPR — persuasive
IACtHR, ECtHR, AfCHPR — cross-fertilization with ICJ,
Conclusions on CIL and jus cogens.
interpretation of HR treaty obligations.
mutual citation.
Ad hoc tribunals
Investment tribunals
Human rights treaty bodies
ICTY, ICTR, ICC, ITLOS — develop specialised doctrine
ICSID, PCA arbitral awards — develop investment law
CERD, CEDAW, CAT — General Recommendations as
in criminal and maritime law.
doctrine.
interpretive guides.
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18.

PART IV
Jus cogens + erga omnes
VCLT 53 · Barcelona Traction · Universal obligations

19.

CHAPTER 04 · JUS COGENS
Jus cogens · peremptory norms
VCLT 1969 · Article 53 — foundational definition
VCLT ART. 53
«A peremptory norm of general international law is a norm accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as
a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having
the same character».
Acceptance by community
No derogation
Modification
By the international community of states «as a whole»
Cannot be waived, contracted around, or overridden
Can only be modified by another norm of the same
— very high threshold.
by any inconsistent norm.
peremptory character.
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20.

CHAPTER 04 · CONSEQUENCES
Consequences of jus cogens
VCLT 53, 64, 71 + ARSIWA 26, 40–41
VCLT Art 53
VCLT Art 64
VCLT Art 71
A treaty is void if, at conclusion, it conflicts with a
If a new peremptory norm emerges, any existing
Consequences of nullity — parties must eliminate
peremptory norm — no severability.
treaty in conflict becomes void and terminates.
consequences of anything based on void provision.
ARSIWA Art 26
ARSIWA Art 40
ARSIWA Art 41
No circumstance precludes wrongfulness of an act in
«Serious breach» = gross or systematic failure to fulfil
All states must cooperate to end serious breach + not
conflict with peremptory norm.
a peremptory norm.
recognise resulting situation as lawful.
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21.

CHAPTER 04 · ILC 2022 LIST
ILC 2022 · Non-exhaustive list of jus cogens
Annex to the Draft Conclusions on Peremptory Norms of General International Law
1
2
3
4
Prohibition of aggression
Prohibition of genocide
Prohibition of crimes against
Basic rules of IHL
humanity
5
6
7
8
Prohibition of racial
Prohibition of slavery
Prohibition of torture
Right of self-determination
discrimination + apartheid
→ Annex explicitly states list is «non-exhaustive» — other peremptory norms may exist or emerge.
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22.

CHAPTER 04 · ERGA OMNES
Erga omnes obligations
«Toward all» — obligations owed to the international community as a whole
BARCELONA TRACTION · PARA. 33
«An essential distinction should be drawn between the obligations of a State towards the international community as a whole, and those
arising vis-à-vis another State... The former are the concern of all States. In view of the importance of the rights involved, all States can be
held to have a legal interest in their protection».
Legal interest of all
Standing beyond bilateralism
Bosnia v. Serbia (2007)
Every state has standing to invoke breaches — not just
Breaks the classical Westphalian bilateral structure of
ICJ confirmed erga omnes character of genocide
directly injured state.
IL — Erga Omnes Partes.
prohibition — universal standing.
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23.

ICJ · CASE 50
Case · Barcelona Traction (ICJ, 1970)
Belgium v. Spain · the foundational statement on erga omnes
FACTS
Belgium claimed diplomatic protection on behalf of Belgian shareholders in a Canadian company («Barcelona Traction») declared
bankrupt in Spain. Belgium's standing denied — but Court used dictum on erga omnes.
Holding
Famous obiter
Only the state of nationality of the company (Canada) had standing — Belgium's
Court's dictum on erga omnes — became foundational despite being non-binding
claim rejected.
obiter dictum.
Examples given
Citation
Prohibition of aggression, genocide, slavery, racial discrimination — later expanded.
ICJ Reports 1970, p. 3 · https://www.icj-cij.org/case/50
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24.

CHAPTER 04 · COMPARISON
Jus cogens vs erga omnes
Related but distinct concepts — often confused
JUS COGENS
ERGA OMNES
Nature
Substantive rank
Structural (to whom owed)
Source
VCLT Art. 53 (1969)
Barcelona Traction (1970)
Focus
What the rule commands
Who has standing to invoke
Effect
Voids conflicting treaties
Universal standing to claim breach
Example
Prohibition of torture
Duty not to commit genocide
Overlap
All jus cogens = erga omnes
Not all erga omnes = jus cogens
CRITERION
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25.

PART V
Soft law, hierarchy, seminar
Soft law · UNGA · Hierarchy · ILC 2022 discussion

26.

CHAPTER 05 · SOFT LAW
Soft law
Non-binding but norm-shaping instruments — the «grey zone» of IL
WORKING DEFINITION
Instruments that are not formally legally binding but produce normative effects — declarations, codes of conduct, guidelines,
resolutions, principles.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Faster to negotiate; flexible; low political cost; can pave way for hard law.
No formal binding force; may create false expectations; can undermine hard law.
Practical function
Doctrinal status
Bridge between politics and law — first step toward custom or treaty.
Formally not «law» — but influences interpretation, opinio juris, state practice.
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27.

CHAPTER 05 · TYPES
Types of soft law
From UN resolutions to voluntary codes of conduct
UNGA resolutions
Codes of conduct
Declarations of principles
Political — but some (UDHR 1948, Friendly Relations
Voluntary standards — OECD Guidelines for
Rio Declaration, Stockholm Declaration — foundations
1970) reflect / generate CIL.
Multinationals, UNGC 10 Principles.
of environmental law.
Guidelines and standards
Memoranda of Understanding
International «best practices»
FATF, Basel Committee, WHO IHR guidelines —
State-to-state MoUs — negotiated but explicitly not
OECD, IMF, WB — advisory frameworks with strong
technical soft law.
treaties.
normative pull.
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28.

CHAPTER 05 · UNGA
UN General Assembly resolutions
Sovereign equality of states — but only recommendatory power
UN CHARTER · ART. 10-14
UNGA resolutions are formally «recommendations» — not binding. But under Nicaragua (1986), they can evidence opinio juris if adopted
with wide majority in language of legal obligation.
UDHR (1948)
Friendly Relations (1970)
Res 217A — foundational human rights instrument, largely now CIL.
Res 2625 — key evidence of opinio juris on 7 principles.
Definition of Aggression (1974)
Rio Declaration (1992)
Res 3314 — used by ICC + ICJ, largely now CIL.
Not a resolution but declaration — foundation of env. law.
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29.

CHAPTER 05 · CODES
Codes of conduct · private + public actors
Voluntary but influential — bridging state and non-state action
OECD Guidelines for MNEs
UN Global Compact
Voluntary standards for responsible business conduct — but backed by NCPs
10 principles on HR, labour, env., anti-corruption — over 15 000 corporate
(National Contact Points).
signatories.
UN Guiding Principles on Business + HR
ICC Rules on Corruption
Ruggie Framework (2011) — Protect, Respect, Remedy — highly authoritative.
Private codes issued by International Chamber of Commerce.
Equator Principles
ISO 26000
Bank financing standards on environmental + social risk — voluntary but widely
Social responsibility standard — international benchmark for CSR.
adopted.
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30.

CHAPTER 05 · HIERARCHY
Hierarchy of international norms
A layered normative order — no perfect pyramid
Jus cogens
Absolute top — non-derogable
UN Charter
Article 103 — Charter obligations prevail
Treaties + Custom + General
principles
Subsidiary means
Soft law
Sources of IL III · General Principles · Soft Law · Jus Cogens
Formally equal — Art 38
Judicial decisions + doctrine
Non-binding — normative influence
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31.

SEMINAR
Seminar · ILC Draft Conclusions on Peremptory Norms (2022)
Dire Tladi as Special Rapporteur · discussion questions
ADOPTED ILC 2022 · 23 DRAFT CONCLUSIONS + ANNEX
Consolidate + codify VCLT provisions + jurisprudence. Non-exhaustive Annex lists 8 accepted jus cogens norms. UNGA «took note» in 2023.
Q1 — Identification
Q2 — Non-exhaustive list
Is «acceptance by the international community as a whole» too vague? How do we
Should the Annex be exhaustive? What norms are missing (right to life, freedom of
prove it?
speech)?
Q3 — Regional jus cogens
Q4 — UNSC resolutions
Draft Conclusion 3(3) rejects regional jus cogens — is this correct? What of European
Conclusion 16 subordinates UNSC resolutions to jus cogens — enforceability in
HR values?
practice?
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32.

KEY TAKEAWAYS
Summary
General principles (Art 38(1)(c)) fill gaps — comparative method from
01
national systems + principles arising in IL itself.
Chorzów Factory (1928) — reparation for wrongs is a «general
02
conception of law»; ILC 2023 Draft Conclusions replace «civilised
nations».
Subsidiary means (Art 38(1)(d)) — no formal precedent (Art 59), but ICJ
03
practices de facto «jurisprudence constante».
Jus cogens (VCLT 53) — peremptory norms voiding conflicting treaties;
04
Erga omnes (Barcelona Traction 1970) — obligations owed to community
05
as a whole; all states have standing.
ILC 2022 lists 8 (aggression, genocide, torture etc.).
Soft law — non-binding but norm-shaping; UNGA resolutions + codes of
06
conduct bridge politics and hard law.