Осн. соц. связи и типы общества_лекция для студентов

1. Lecture #2 SOCIAL STRUCTURES AND SOCIETY

Social statuses
Social roles
Social actions
Social interactions
Types of society

2. Какое общество изучает социология?

Общество как нечто, отличное от природы
(человеческое общество).
Общество как нечто большее, чем сумму индивидов
(как социокультурную общность).
Общество как социетальную систему на макроуровне
(классы, группы, категории, институты и др.) и
межличностное взаимодействие на микроуровне.
Общество как историческую эпоху (современное, а не
традиционное общество).
Общество как социальность (базовые структуры и
паттерны совместной жизни людей)

3. SUBJECT MATTER OF SOCIOLOGY

Individual
(personality structures)
We’ll
start
from here
The
Social
Culture
(cultural structures)
Society
(social structures)

4. SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY

Social Structure(s) – network of interrelated
statuses, roles, (inter)actions, groups, organizations,
classes and institutions
Social structure of interrelated statuses and roles helps us know
what is expected of us.
It ensures stability from one
generation to the next – even though
the actual society changes.
Statuses and roles form the basis
for the rest of social structures in
society:
Social actions/interactions
Social groups, organizations
Classes
Family/Economy/Polity/Education, etc.

5. SOCIAL STRUCTURES

Social Institutions
Groups and
Organizations
Society
Social
Stratification
Today we’ll
engage
with
Status/role/
(inter)action
structures

6.

Definitions of Status
Davis: ”Status is the position in the general institutional system
recognized and adopted by the entire society, spontaneously evolved
rather than deliberately created, rooted in the folkways and
customs.”
MacIver: ” Status is the position that determines for its possessor… a
degree of respect , prestige and influence.”
Ogburn & Nimkoff: “The simplest definition of status is that it
represents the position of the individual in the group.”
Mazumdar: Status means the location of the individual within the
group, his place in the social network of reciprocal obligations and
privileges, rights and duties.”

7. Characteristics of status

9. Status in the social structure determines what rights and
responsibilities you have

8.

9. Types of status

10. Лиминальность в современном мире

ЛИМИНАЛЬНОСТЬ (liminality) – положение индивидов и
групп, находящихся в процессе перехода из одного статуса в
другой, пребывающих в «необычном» состоянии, либо имеющих
статусную неопределенность.
Типы лиминальности:
Восходящая лиминальность (абитуриент).
Нисходящая лиминальность (заключенный в СИЗО,
онко-больной).
Рекурсивная лиминальность (туристы).
Перманентная лиминальность (цыгане, фрилансеры).
Лиминоидность (зацеперы, попрошайки, жертвы
насилия).

11.

«Переписанные» (reascribed) статусы – статусы
субъектов и объектов, получаемых в результате
трансмобильности
Трансмобильность – переходы и переключения аскриптивных
статусов в область достигаемых статусов и образование зоны
переписанных идентичностей социальных акторов и актантов

12.

13. Постчеловечество

Постгендеры
Генно-модифицированные люди
Корпорально-измененные
ЭКО-люди
Дегеронтизированные люди
Крио-люди
Суб-люди
Цифровые люди
Постживотные

14.

15. Definitions of Role

Davis: “Role is the manner in which a person actually
carried out the requirements of his position”
Ogburn and Nimkoff : “Role is a set of socially
expected and approved behavior patterns consisting
of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular
position in a group”.
Elliot and Merrill: ”Role is the part she plays as a
result of each status.”
Fitcher: “When a number of inter-related behavior
patterns are clustered around a social function, we call
this combination a social role.”

16. Characteristics of role

17.

18.

Source: John J. Massionis. Sociology, 2012

19. Role Conflict

Role conflict – condition of conflicting sets of
expectations
Intra-sender Conflict - occurs when a single source sends
clear but contradictory messages. (“My parents say they expect
me to be independent, but they treat me like a child”).
Intersender Conflict - occurs when the expectations sent
from one sender collide with those from one or more other
senders (“Mom wants me to be more responsive to people, but
my dad expects me to be self-seeking”).
Intra-role (Person-role/Self-role) Conflict – occurs when
there are incompatible expectations/norms within the same
role. E.g. mothers have to be simultaneously kind and strict
with treating their kids.
Interrole Conflict - occurs when an individual occupies two
or more roles whose expectations are inconsistent. E.g.
professional soldier as Christian.

20. Role Strain and Role Overload

Role strain - occurs when a person
has trouble performing roles connected
with a single status. E.g. class leaderstudent (he/she is expected to do well
academically, be socially active, have
good managerial skills, pursue a sport,
and so forth).
If you can’t cope with role strain,
it is likely to get:
Role overload that occurs when
expectations exceed the individuals
abilities. Or when the individual takes
on too many roles at one time. E.g.
failure of a young man to meet new
conjugal duties in early marriage may
lead him to suicide.

21. Кароси

22. UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL ACTIONS

Max Weber differentiated between the social
action and behavior. For him, behavior meant an
automatic reaction that involves no thought
processes: a stimulus is presented and behavior
follows.
Weber was concerned with action that involved
thought processes and the resulting socially
meaningful consequences.
According to Weber, the task of sociological analysis
involved “the interpretation of action in terms of its
subjective meaning”.
Weber’s novel methodology was to focus on
individuals and regularities of social action
and not on the collectivity.
(1864-1920)
‘’Action is social, insofar as its subjective meaning takes
account of the behavior of others and is thereby
oriented in its course …’’ – M. Weber

23.

24. TYPES OF SOCIAL ACTIONS

1) Zweck-rational (instrumental/purposefulrational) action is based on means-ends rationality.
Zweckrational action is distinguished by the fact that the
actor conceives his goal clearly and combines means with
a view to attaining it. E.g. trading.

25.

TYPES OF SOCIAL ACTIONS
2) Value-oriented-rational action is based on value
rationality and determined by a conscious belief in
some ethical, religious or other form of behavior. E.g.
worshiping God.

26.

TYPES OF SOCIAL ACTIONS
4) Traditional action is determined by actor’s
habitual and customary ways of behaving. E.g. rituals.

27.

TYPES OF SOCIAL ACTIONS
3) Affective/affectual action
is determined by an
immediate emotional state of the actor. E.g. fights.

28. SOCIOLOGY OF G. SIMMEL

SOCIOLOGY
GEORG SIMMEL
OF G. SIMMEL
Georg Simmel (1858-1918) was a
German sociologist and Neo-Kantian
philosopher whose interests widely ranged
from
studying
micro-level
social
interactions to conflict theory to timeless
issues of ethics and aesthetics.
Social interaction is a social
engagement that involves two
or more individuals who orient
their actions to one another.

29.

ROLE TAKING
“It is only by taking the roles of others that we have
been able to come back to ourselves”, G. H. Mead
Role-taking, as a skill, develops during socialization

30. Social Interaction and its types

Social Interaction – the ways in which people act with
other people and react to how other people are acting
Cooperation – interaction for the sake of common goal. E.g. ?
Conflict – interaction for the sake of power (re)distribution.
Includes attempts to control by force, oppose, harm or resist the
will of opponent(s). E.g. ?
Social exchange – interaction for the sake of mutual benefit.
The basis of an exchange relationship is reciprocity, the idea that
you should do for others as they have done for you. E.g. ?
Coercion – interaction for the sake of hierarchy and control.
Social order requires those who dominate/subordinate by
authority, force, social pressure, etc., and those who obey. When
you disagree to obey coercion, you go to conflict interaction. E.g. ?
Conformity – interaction for the sake of consent/solidarity/
cohesion. Society is a community of people who share common
values, norms, etc. People tend to conform as they usually strive
to fit in, get on the inside, be a part of the whole (group/society)
and to never feel like a black sheep. E.g. ?

31. Cooperation

Cooperation – interaction for the sake of common
goal
A form of interaction in which individuals or groups
combine their efforts to reach a goal
Usually occurs when…
Reaching a goal demands the best use of limited resources and
efforts
Examples: teamwork
The members of a football team work together to win a game.
The school band, and student body also contribute to this
effort by encouraging the team. If, in the end, the team takes
a trophy, it will be through the shared efforts of the entire
school. Similarly, the employees of a corporation work
together to increase sales for the organization. If their efforts
are successful, everyone benefits. In both of these examples,
the people involved are cooperating to achieve a desired goal.

32. Conflict

Groups or individuals that work against one another for a
larger share of the rewards.
Defeating the opponent is essential
Georg Simmel identified four sources of conflict: wars,
disagreements within groups, legal disputes, and clashes over
ideology, such as religion or politics
Social benefits of conflict:
Simmel-Coser law on social conflict:
“Conflict with another group leads to the mobilization
of the energies of group members and hence to
increased cohesion of the group”
Example: A neighborhood bully can bring together 2
brothers who usually don’t get along.
Draws attention to social problems
Example: Student protests in the late 1960s and early ’70s
(many of which were violent) in Europe and the US
resulted in changes to previously accepted norms and
behaviors within universities. University administrations
became more sensitive to diverse student needs, and more
emphasis was placed on teaching.

33. Social Exchange

Social exchange – interaction for the sake of
mutual benefit. The basis of an exchange
relationship is reciprocity, the idea that you should
do for others as they have done for you
A voluntary action performed in the expectation
of getting a reward in return.
Benefit to be earned rather than the relationship
itself that is the key
Example: You help a friend wash her car, she then helps
you study for a test

34. Coercion

Coercion – interaction for the sake of hierarchy
and control
Individuals or groups are forced to give in to the
will of other individuals or groups
One-way street; central element is domination
May occur through physical violence (torture, or killing)
Example: Sexual abuse.
More often through: social sanctions (from ridicule to fines to
criminal penalty)
Example: Parents can control behavior of young children by
threatening to withdraw privileges.

35. Conformity

Conformity – interaction for the sake of
consent/solidarity/ cohesion.
Behavior that matches group expectations.
Adapt behavior to fit behavior of those around us
Necessary for social cohesion and solidarity
Church
Family
University
Government

36. Quick Quiz Time each answer will be used only 1 time

a. Cooperation
b. Conflict
c. Social Exchange
d. Coercion
e. Conformity
?
1. Blood donors expect payment
2. Students attend classes to do well in studies
3. America blames Russia for election meddling
4. Flood victims help each other
5. Employees are forced to work overtime or be
fired
6. Football teams play for the World cup

37. Competition

One more type is:
Competition – interaction for
the sake of social justice. It
occurs when two or more
people or groups oppose
each other to achieve a goal
that only one can attain.
Occupational selection based on competition provides distributive
justice in society.
Davis-Moore thesis (briefly): The greater talented/trained you
are, the higher position you take and the higher reward you get.
So, societies need competition as a device to promote better qualified,
more talented/skillful individuals for more important occupational
positions with higher rewards (in income, authority, prestige, etc.).
Equality in opportunity but inequality in outcome.

38. Davis and Moore theory (thesis/hypothesis)

In their seminal paper (1945), American sociologists
K. Davis and W. Moore stated that social
stratification is universal and necessary as it has
beneficial consequences for the operation of
society.
This is so because it is social stratification that
provides distributive justice in modern (open)
societies.
Distributive justice is the principle that the greater
the functional importance of a position, the more
rewards a society attaches to it.
This principle promotes productivity and efficiency
because rewarding important work with more
income, prestige and power encourages people to
compete for them thus drawing more talented
people away from less important work.
In short, unequal rewards (which is what social
stratification is) benefit society as a whole.
Kingsley Davis
(1908-1997)
Wilbert E. Moore
(1914-1987)

39.

40. Социальные отношения – это вся система связей между статусами, ролями и нормами в обществе

По степени
длительности
- постоянные
- срочные
По степени
формализации
- формальные
- неформальные
По уровню
- межличностные
- внутригрупповые
- межгрупповые
- международные
По сферам
- экономические
- политические
- правовые
- духовные и др.

41. Types of society

Sociologists tend to classify societies according to
subsistence strategies, i.e. dominant labor statuses
Subsistence strategy is the way a society uses technology
in economy to provide for the needs of its members
Drawing on the original typology of Gerhard Lenski (19242015), sociologists now place societies in three broad
categories:
Preindustrial societies, including
Hunting and gathering society
Pastoral society
Horticultural society
Agricultural society
Industrial societies
Postindustrial societies

42. Historical Periods

Society
Historical Period
Hunting and
Gathering
Until 12,000 years ago.
Horticultural and
Pastoral
From 12,000 years ago, with rapidly
decreasing numbers after 4000 BC.
Agrarian
From about 7,000 years ago; large but
decreasing numbers today.
Industrial
From about 1750 to present.
Post industrial
From about 1960 to present.

43. Dominant type of energy and technology

Society
Energy/Technology
Hunting/Gathering
Fire; crude weapons
Horticultural/Pastoral
Fire; hand tools for planting
Agrarian
Fire; animal power for plowing;
irrigation systems
Industrial
Steam, electricity, coal/gas/oil/nuclear
power
Post industrial
Information technologies, renewable
energy and green power
Now, we are experiencing the Fourth Industrial Revolution. It is
characterized by a range of new technologies that are fusing the
physical, digital and biological worlds

44. Examples

Society
Examples
Hunting/Gathering
Eskimo; Pygmies of Central Africa;
Aborigines of Australia
Horticultural/
Pastoral
Societies of the Fertile Crescent (now
Iraq); Laplanders; Maasai
Agrarian
Medieval Europe, most modern African
countries, Vietnam, Albania
Industrial
Eastern Europe, Latin America
Post industrial
United States; most nations of Western
Europe; Japan
Some modern countries are transitional, thus they subsume under
two types at a time. E.g. India, China should be considered as
agrarian-industrial (by sector composition of the labor force)

45. Hunting and Gathering Societies

Rely on daily collection of wild plants and the
hunting of wild animals.
Move around constantly in search of food.
Consist of fewer than 60 people and rarely exceed
100 people.
Statuses within the group are relatively equal.
The family (kinship) is the main social unit, with
most societal members being related by birth or
by marriage.
Lack of material possessions

46. Pastoral Societies

Rely on domesticated herd animals to meet their
food needs.
Still live a nomadic life, moving their herds
from pasture to pasture.
Support larger populations.
The division of labor becomes more complex. For
example, some people become craftworkers,
producing tools, weapons, and jewelry.
Encourages trade.
Inequality increases, as some families acquire
more goods than others do.
Hereditary chieftainships emerge.

47. Horticultural Societies

Rely on fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots that have been
cleared from the jungle or forest.
Use human labor and simple tools to cultivate the land for one or
more seasons.
Can stay in one area for a fairly long period of time. This allows
them to build semi-permanent or permanent villages.
The size of a villages population depends on the amount of land
available for farming. Villages can range from as few as 30 people to
as many as 2,000.
Specialized roles that are part of horticultural life, include those of
craftspeople, shamans-or religious leaders-and traders. This role
specialization allows horticulturists to create a wide variety of
artifacts.
Hereditary chieftainships are still prevalent. Economic and political
systems may be better developed than in pastoral societies because
of the more settled nature of horticultural life.

48. Agricultural Societies

Animals are used to pull plows for tilling the fields.
Irrigation- another innovation- further increases crop
yields, as does terracing, which is the practice of cutting
fields into the sides of hills.
Permanent settlements. Cities emerge.
Support very large populations (>1 million people).
Statehood, armies emerge.
Most people must still work in food production, but
many people are able to engage in specialized roles.
Money, roads, systems of writing emerge.
Stratification intensifies, as people are divided to
peasant classes and ruling classes.
Hereditary monarchy is common power pattern.

49. Industrial Societies

Rely on production of manufactured goods by adding
more machines or by developing new technologies.
Pronounced division of labor
Rapid urbanization
Religion descends, science ascends in social development
Fully refashioned nature of work (conveyer, etc.)
Fast growth of productivity
Alienation emerges
Mass education, mass media, mass culture emerge
More freedom is provided.

50. Postindustrial Societies

Daniel Bell in 1973 (The Coming of
Post-Industrial Society) coined the term.
He identified five major features of that
type of society:
Most of labor force is employed in
services rather than
manufacturing or agriculture
White collar work replaces most
blue collar work
Advances in intellectual technology
Knowledge/information is the key
organizing feature (in place of
material property)
Scientific expertise everywhere
Daniel Bell
(1919-2011)