The design and logic of a comparative method

1.

THE DESIGN AND
LOGIC OF A
COMPARATIVE
METHOD
PROF. L. SMORGUNOV, SPBSU

2.

TOPICS
Comparison as Research Method
The Basic Principles of Research Design of Comparative Research
Organization of comparative study
Problems and types of comparison

3.

COMPARATIVE POLITICS IN PS
“Comparative analysis is an integral part of the
study of politics. The comparative study
suggests immediately the laboratory of a
scientist. It provides us with the opportunity
to discuss specific phenomena in the light of
different historical and social backgrounds.
It suggests variables of a rather complex
order that can be dissociated from the
cultural background and studied
comparatively…
The comparative study of politics is beginning
only now to enter a new stage, which
reflects in essence the progressive systematic
orientation in the study of politics. It is
beginning to assume a central role in
empirically oriented study”.
(Macridis Roy. The Study of Comparative Government.
New York: Random House, 1955, p. 1-3).

4.

1. WHY WE NEED COMPARISON IN POLITICAL SCIENCE (PUBLIC
POLICY)?
Almond: “Comparison is the only way we can fully
understand our own political system.
Comparing our experience with that of other
countries deepens our understanding of our own
institutions. Examining politics in other societies
permits us to see a wider range of political
alternatives. It illuminates the virtues and
shortcoming of our own political life.
Almond Gabriel (19112002)
Comparison is also at the methodological core of the
scientific study of politics. Comparative analysis
helps us develop explanations and test theories
of the ways in which political processes work and
in which political change occurs. The goals of the
comparative methods used by political scientists
are similar to those used in more exact sciences.
But political scientists cannot normally design
experiments, a major path to knowledge in many
of the natural sciences ". (Almond G. et all (eds.).
Comparative Politics Today. A World View. 9th ed.
N.Y. et all: Longman, 2008, p. 28).

5.

THE ESSENTIALS OF COMPARATIVE
STUDIES
“We have only one means of demonstrating that one
phenomenon is the cause of another: it is to compare case
to cases where they are simultaneously present or absent.
When the phenomenon can be artificially produced by the
observer, the method is experimentation in its proper sense.
When, on the contrary, the product of fact is out of reach,
when we can thus only bring them together as they are
spontaneously produced, the method we use is that of
indirect experimentation, or comparative method.”
(Durkhiem; Quoted in Dogan and Pelassy, 1990, P. 15-16)

6.

COMPARATIVE METHOD AND EXPERIMENT
1. The experimenter creates a situation, the comparativist chooses a number of real situations.
2. The experimenter manipulates the actual conditions of the situation, the comparativist manipulates
the conditions of the situation conceptually.
3. The experimenter controls the conditions of the situation in the process of the experiment, the
comparativist controls the conditions of the situation, selecting groups of countries.
4. The experimenter is looking for consequences, the comparativist is looking for conditions.
5. The experimenter measures, the comparativist combines quantitative and qualitative methods.

7.

8.

THE ESSENTIALS OF COMPARATIVE
STUDIES
“Comparison is a universal method in the social sciences;
it is worthwhile not only to those who study in
international field. ….It is not surprise that the historical
method is so often combined with comparative method.”
(Dogan and Pelassy, 1990, P. 16)
“Comparative sociology is not a special branch of
sociology, it is sociology itself, in so far as it cease to be
purely descriptive and aspires to account for fact.”
(Durkhiem, P. 157; Quoted in Schriewer, 2003, P. 5)

9.

2. THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN OF COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
The design of comparative research is conditioned largely
by four rules:
Comparability
J.S. Mill's 1st Canon (Method of
Agreement)
J.S. Mill's 2nd Canon (Method of
Difference)
Rule of One Variable
Comparative Methods in Sociology: Essays on Trends and
Applications / Eds. I. Vallier, D. E. Apter. Univ. of
California Press, 1971, p. 267.

10.

COMPARABILITY
Two or more instances of a phenomenon may be compared if and only if
there exists some variable, say V, common to each instance.

11.

J.S. MILL'S 1ST CANON (METHOD OF AGREEMENT)
If two or more instances of the
phenomenon under investigation have only
one circumstance in common, the
circumstance in which alone all the
instances agree, is the cause (or effect) of
the given phenomenon.
This method is also referred to more generally
within comparative politics as the most different
systems design.
A B C D occur together with w x y z
A E F G occur together with w t u v
——————————————————
Therefore A is the cause, or the effect, of w.

12.

J.S. MILL'S 2ND CANON (METHOD OF DIFFERENCE)
If an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs, and an instance in
which it does not occur, have every circumstance save one in common, that one
occurring only in the former; the circumstance in which alone the two instances differ,
is the effect, or cause, or a necessary part of the cause, of the phenomenon.
This method is also known more generally as the most similar systems design
within comparative politics.
A B C D occur together with w x y z
B C D occur together with x y z
——————————————————
Therefore A is the cause, or the effect, or a part of the cause of w.

13.

RULE OF ONE VARIABLE
Morris Zelditch (1971) specifies that the design of
comparative research is conditioned largely by fourth rule:
Rule of One Variable : No second variable U is definitely the
cause or effect of V if there exists a third variable, w, that is
present or absent in the same circumstances as U.
VWX
U
VWX
w
VWX
U
w

14.

FALSE HYPOTHESIS
Storks bring children
It has been statistically noted that where there are many
storks, many children are born there. Hence storks bring
children (S > Ch).
The hypothesis is false (spurious relationships), since there
is a third variable (H). Storks usually settle on poles or
pipes of individual houses. The more individual houses, the
more storks. However, the more families have separate
homes, the more children are born to them. Therefore, the
birth of children is determined by the housing conditions
of families.
S > Ch
H

15.

3. ORGANIZATION OF COMPARATIVE STUDY
Conceptualization
Concept A
>
Concept B (Political regimes >
wellbeing)
Choice of the variables
Independent A
wellbeing)
>
Dependent B (Democracy-authocracy >
Operationalization (nominal, ordinal [interval, ratio] scales)
Measurement A
capita)
>
Measurement B (Polity IV >
Collection of the data (aggregate and survey data)
Data analysis (descriptive, analytical, statistical, qualitative)
Conceptualization
GDP per

16.

PROBLEMS
Equivalency (political language)
Few cases many variables
Galton problem
Measurement problem
Problem of universal conclusions
Reliability + Validity

17.

RELIABILITY
The extent to which an experiment, test, or measuring procedure
yields the same results on repeated trials or to same cases/units.
How many?

18.

VALIDITY
Validity is the extent to which a concept, conclusion or measurement
is well-founded and likely corresponds accurately to the real world.
How correct?

19.

TYPES OF COMPARISONS
Сase-study comparison
Binary comparison
The regional comparison
Global comparison
Cross-temporal comparison

20.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=P6cdlufEEBQ