Syntax. Лекция 2-3

1.

SYNTAX
Kakzhanova F.A.

2.

Syntax
deals with word combinations and
sentences, the arrangement of words in
sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the
study of the formation of sentences and the
relationship of their component parts.

3.

• A sentence is a set of words that is
complete in itself, typically containing
a subject and predicate, conveying a
statement, question, exclamation, or
command, and consisting of a main
clause and sometimes one or more
subordinate clauses.
Oxford Dictionary

4.

The sentence expresses a complete message.
***
A group of words,usually containing a verb,
that expresses a thought in the form of
a statement, question, instruction,
or exclamation and starts witha capital letter
when written.
Cambridge Dictionary

5.

Non-sentence utterances are:
• 1. Vocatives: Charles! Mr.West!
• 2. Yes-no answers.
• 3. Interjections: Hi! Dear me!
• 4. Conversational formulas: Thank you. Byebye.

6.

The proposition of sentences
• A sentence is a group of words that are put
together to mean something. A sentence is the
basic unit of language which expresses a
complete thought. It does this by following
the grammatical basic rules of syntax.
• A complete sentence has at least a subject
and a main predicate to state (declare) a
complete thought.

7.

• A sentence belongs to grammar, the
grammar belongs to syntax.
• A sentence consists of 5 members:
• subject
• predicate
• object
• attribute
• adverbial modifier
• Kate decided to go with her sister to the zoo
today.

8.

THE FORMS OF THE SUBJECT
Noun or pronoun: Kate (she) comes soon.
Adjective: The rich become richer.
Number: Two friends refused to come.
Gerund: Reading is interesting.
Infinitive: To drive in a big city is dangerous.
That clause:That he can drive was known to
everyone.
Relative clause: Whatever he helped them
was taken into consideration (who, which,
whoever, whatever, whichever).
It was known by everyone that he had traveled
the world.It is raining

9.

verbal
simple
phraseological
Predicate
nominal
compound
modal

10.

The simple verbal predicate
• is a predicate expressed by a finite form of the
verb in any tense, voice, aspect, person, number,
and mood.
• I write a letter. Write (present tense, active voice,
indefinite aspect ,I person, Imdicative
mood,singular form)
• The compound verbal predicate consists of:
a) a modal verb combined with an aspect:
• I can speak.
• b) verbs: I want to read.
• c) stative verbs: She began to cry.

11.

• The compound nominal predicate consists of a
link-verb and a predicate ( the nominal part of
the predicate).
• Noun: The unit of resistance is an ohm.
(Единицей сопротивления является ом).
• Adjective: The peaceful coexistence of
different social systems is possible .
(Мирное
сосуществование
различных
социальных, систем возможно).
• Numerals: The mass of an electron is 1/1830
that of a hydrogen atom.
• (Масса электрона составляет 1/1830 массы
атома водорода).

12.

• Pronoun : The street is mine, the houses are mine.
Улица — моя, дома — мои. (В. Маяковский)
• Adverb : The lesson is over. Урок окончен.
She is out. Ее нет (она вышла).
• Infinitive:The thing to do now," he said, "is to
close up, go home, and sleep." "Вот что надо
сделать сейчас,—сказал он,—закончить работу,
пойти домой и лечь спать".
• Participle All the doors of the laboratories and
classrooms were closed and locked.
• Все двери лабораторий и аудиторий были закрыты и
заперты.
• Gerund, Our aim is mastering English.
• Наша цель—овладеть английским языком.

13.

Subject and predicate co –
ordination
AGREEMENT in person and number:
Water has the least volume at 4'C.
Solid bodies have a definite form and volume.
• If the subject is anyone, none, everything,
• everybody e.t.c. the predicate is in singular
form
• Everybody knows it. -- Все знают это.
• Either of the rubber rods is attracted by a
glass rod.

14.

• The subject is gerund or infinitive, the predicate is in
singular form:
Melting takes place at the temperature called melting
point. Плавление происходит при - температуре,
называемой точкой плавления.
• If the subject is collective noun the predicate uses as
plural form as singular form depends on the purpose
of the speech
• A woman tried to fight her way back to the thick of the
crowd... but the crowd was helpless. Какая-то
женщина пыталась пробиться сквозь толпу..., но
толпа не могла расступиться (букв.: была
беспомощной).
• The fleeing crowd were scattered by the mounted
police. -- Бегущая толпа была рассеяна конной
полицией.

15.

Three criteria for identifying subjects in
English
• Subject-verb agreement: The subject agrees
with the finite verb in person and number, e.g. I
am writing.
• 2. Position occupied: The subject typically
immediately precedes the finite verb in
declarative clauses in English, e.g. Tom laughs.
• 3. Semantic role: A typical subject in the active
voice is an agent or theme, i.e. it performs the
action expressed by the verb or when it is a
theme, it receives a property assigned to it by the
predicate.

16.

OBJECT
• Traditional grammar defines the object in a
sentence as the entity that is acted upon by
the subject.
• THREE TYPES OF OBJECTS:
• Direct object: I sent a letter.
• Indirect object: I gave her flowers.
• Prepositional object: They are waiting for a
friend.

17.

OBJECT MAY BE EXPRESSED
• Noun or pronoun: I see Kate (her).
• That clause: We remembered that we had read
this chapter Bare clause: We remembered we had
read this chapter.
• For clause:We are not responsible for what the
did.
• Interrogative pronoun clause: They said what had
happened (who, which, what whoever, whatever,
whichever, if ,whom). It is the question to whom she
said.
• .Gerund clause: I stopped talking to him.

18.

• Infinitive: I stopped to talk to him.
• Cataforic IT. I knew it that was said by
him.
• Adjective: I see the poor.
• Number : I see two of them.

19.

ATTRIBUTES (adjective clause), TYPES OF
ATTRIBUTES
AN ATTRIBUTE qualifies a noun or noun phrase, giving more
information about the object signified NOUN: TABLE LAMP
NOUN WITH PREPOSITION: QUESTION UNDER
INVESTIGATION
AN ADJECTIVE : A CLEVER BOY.
NUMBER: THREE STUDENTS.
PRONOUN: HER CHILD.
POSSESSIVE : PROFESSOR’S REMARK
PARTICIPLE I: THE READING BOY.
PARTICIPLE II: THE WRITTEN BOOK.
GERUND: THE BOOK FOR READING.
INFINITIVE: THE LETTER TO WRITE.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS:( that ,what, who,whom, whose,
when, where, which):
The girl who was standing near me is my sister.

20.

There two types of adjective clause:
• Identifying ( without comma)
• The person, who was standing near you is my
brother.
• Modifying (with comma)
• Mr.Smith, who lives next door, works at the
university.
• NOUN +WHEN, WHERE,WHOM and WHICH
• She entered the university where he studied.
• I was at Boston where the world’s best university
is based.
• She failed her exams, which she passed in falling
term.
• The singer, about whom knows everybody, will
come to our city.

21.

ADVERBIAL MODIFIER CLAUSES OR
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES:
The adverbial modifier also defines an action or
other attribute in a qualitative or quantitative sense
1. Adverbial Modifier of Place (where)
I said it where we were at the restaurant.
2. Adverbial Modifier of Time (when,while)
I said it when the shout.
3. Adverbial Modifier of reason(because, since)
I said it because he was wrong.

22.

1. Adverbial Modifier of Purpose (so that)
2. I decided to enter a university that is why
I go Moscow.
3. Adverbial Modifier of contrast (although,
whereas) Although I love meat, I eat it
rarely.
4. Adverbial Modifier of condition( if )
5. If he had been the Ministry he would have
changed.

23.

Place. This modifier describe the place
or direction WHERE the action
happened.
He found himself in a lonely street.
• Time. This modifiers describe the time
WHEN the action happened.
For more than 5 years she has been living
there.
• Reason, cause. This modifiers describe
situation WHY the action happened.
• The airplane was detained because of
the fog.

24.

• of comparison
• e.g. She sat still like a statue. He was as ugly as a
monkey.
• of consequence
• e.g. He is clever enough to understand it. She was too
tired to go for a drive.
• of concession
• e.g. Whatever the reason, she should have come.
Though tired, he agreed to accompany us.
• of condition
• e.g. To look at her you wouldn't believe she was a
famous actress. He said he would do it if necessary.
• of exception
• e.g. He had no choice but to obey the orders.

25.

• Participle I. Reading this book I face with facts.
• Gerund: In reading this book I face with facts.
• Infinitive: To drive in a big sity one should be experiences.
• Complete adverbial modifier
• Remember a holiday of mine being ruined by our paying
attention to the weather report of our local newspaper .
• The weather was too cold for the children to have a walk .
• The weather being fine, the airplane started. -

26.

ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES
• SENTENCES MAY BE:
/
\
SIMPLE COMPOSITE
/
\
COMPOUND cOMPLEX
/
\
Semi-compound semi -complex

27.

ANALYSE SENTENCES from the point of clause :
• I said it where we were at the restaurant
• where we were at the restaurant –subordinative clause;
place clause.
• Where – place conjunction
• You can go only if you are back by evening.
• When he comes in, tell her I want to speak to her.
• Although I know him I do not want to talk to him.
• This is the problem which we are having at that moment.
• He is the man who wrote back to me.
• This is a problem which occurs regularly.
• He likes fried rice while I prefer boiled.
• I’ll take my shoes off so as not to dirty the carpet.

28.

SYNTAGMATIC AND PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS
Ferdinand de Saussure:
• Intralinguistic relations that exist between
words are basically of two types:
• syntagmatic
• paradigmatic.

29.

SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONS:
syntagmatic relations are linear relations
between words.
are the relationships that a linguistic unit has
with other units in the stretch of speech in
which it occurs.
1. He could not get the piano through the door

30.

PARADIGMATIC REALTIONS are the relations that a linguistic unit
modification according to context.
He writes the book.
The book was written by me.
I see the written book.
I see the writing boy in front of the
blackboard.
I wrote a book.

31.

GOVERNMENT
• In grammar and theoretical linguistics,
government or rection refers to the
relationship between a word and its
dependents. One can discern between at least
three concepts of government: the traditional
notion of case government, the highly
specialized definition of government in some
generative models of syntax, and a much
broader notion in dependency grammars.
• I read quickly not I read quick. Hot enough
not enough hot.

32.

TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE
1 SIMPLE
2 COMPOUND
3 COMPLEX (SUBORDINATIVE
CLAUSE AND THE MAIN OR
PRINCIPLE CLAUSE)
AFTER I READ THE BOOK (SC) ,I RETURNED IT(MC)
After reading the book
4 SEMI-COMPOUND
5 SEMI-COMPLEX

33.

THE SIMPLE SENTENCES
The simple sentence consists of one subject-predicate unit.
IT MAY BE:
• a) UNEXTENDED PATTERNS (those with no secondary
parts).
For example:The child laughed. Mary is a nurse.
• b) EXTENDED PATTERNS by obligatory elements.
For example: The child caught the ball. John lives in London.
If one of these extending elements is omitted the sentence is
incomplete.
• c) EXTENDED PATTERNS by optional elements.
For example: The child laughed merrily. My friend Mary is a
very kind nurse.

34.

SIMPLE SENTENCE
CONSISTS OF A SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
• I READ THE BOOK
• He wrote a letter.
• They are sitting at the conference.
• I conducted the lecture.
• He has been twice in England.
• I shall go to the University
• I have been waiting for you.

35.

A one-member sentence
contains only one principal part which is neither the
subject nor the predicate.
• NOMINAL sentences are those in which the principal
part is expressed by a noun;
For example: Silence. Summer. Midnight (unextended).
English spring flowers! (extended)
• VERBAL one-member sentences are those in which the
principal part is expressed by a non-finite form of the
verb, either an infinitive or a gerund.
For example: To think of that!
Living at the mercy of a woman!

36.

AN ELLIPTICAL TWO-MEMBER SENTENCE
is a sentence in which one or more word-forms in the
subject and the predicate positions are omitted.
“Where are you going?” ― “To the library”.
“Who lives in that house ?” ― “John and Mary”.
Looks like rain.
See what I mean?
You sure?
Children not admitted.
No smoking here.

37.

THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE
The composite sentence is a sentence consisting of two or
more clauses, and therefore containing two or more
subject-predicate groups. In its structure a clause is
similar to a simple sentence, but unlike a simple
sentence it forms part of a bigger syntactical unit.
Within a composite sentence clauses may be joined by
means of coordination or subordination, thus forming
a compound or a complex sentence respectively.
Coordination is a way of linking grammatical
elements to make them equal in rank.
COMPOSITE SENTENCE
/
\
COMPOUND COMPLEX

38.

Compound sentences
The compound sentence consists of two or more
clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical
whole in meaning and intonation. Clauses that are
parts of a compound sentence are called coordinate,
as they are joined by coordination.
(1)I HAD READ THE BOOK AND (2)I
RETURNED TO THE LIBRARY.
THIS SENTENCE CONSISTS OF TWO INDEPENDENT
CLAUSES

39.

SEMI-COMPOUND
• I HAD READ THE BOOK AND RETURNED IT.
• I WROTE A LETTER AND SENT IT.
• The story was amusing, but nobody laughed.
The conjunctions while and whereas specialize in
expressing contrastive relations:
Peter is an engineer, while his brother is a musician.
• She was familiar with the petty social problems, and they bored her.
• You can join us at the station, or we can wait for you at home.
The correlative either emphasizes the exclusion of one of the
alternatives.
Either listen to me, or I shall stop reading to you.

40.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
function as different parts of the sentence
(subject, predicative, object, apposition,
attribute, adverbial modifier).
Subordinate clauses can be classified under
three headings: a) nominal (or noun) clauses
(clauses functioning as nouns in various
syntactical positions);
b) attributive (or relative) clauses;
c) adverbial modifier clauses,
d) objective clauses.

41.

The Complex Sentence
Complex sentences can be formed by joining
subordinate clauses to the main clause with
conjunctions or conjunctive words (syndetically)
or without them (asyndetically). The first one is
called the main (or principal) clause, the
second is the subordinate clause.
For example: (2)AFTER I HAD READ THE
BOOK (1)I RETURNED IT.
THIS SENTENCE CONSISTS OF AN
INDEPEN-ENT (1) CLAUSE AND
DEPENDENT OR SUBORDINATIVE
CLAUSE (2).

42.

SEMI-COMPLEX SENTENCES
• Having read the book, I returned it.
• After reading the book I returned it.
• On reading the book I returned it.

43.

CONJUCTIONS
are the formal signals of subordination the only
function of which is to link clauses and express
the relation between them (that, because,
through, in order that, as far as, if only, etc.).
For example:
• Everybody knows that money doesn’t grow on
trees.

44.

CONJUCTIVE WORDS
which are used to join nominal clauses combine
two functions: to link clauses and to be a part
in the subordinate clause (who, what, when,
why, where, etc.).
For example:
• Do you realize how far it is to Hawaii?

45.

• SUBORDINATIVE CONJUCTIONS:
after, although, as, because, before,
for,how, however, if,in case, in oRder that,
once, since, that, though, till, unless,
until, when, whenever, where, whereas,
wherever, which, while, whilst, whoever,
whose

46.

3. DISJUNCTIVE CONNECTION
denotes choice, usually between two mutually
exclusive alternatives. The disjunctive
conjunctions are or, either ... or, the
conjunctive adverbs else (or else), otherwise.
For example:
You can join us at the station, or we can
wait for you at home.
The correlative either emphasizes the
exclusion of one of the alternatives.
Either listen to me, or I shall stop reading
to you.

47.

4. CAUSATIVE-CONSECUTIVE COORDINATION
joins clauses connected in such a way that one of
them contains a reason and the other ― a
consequence. The second clause may contain
either the reason or the result of the event
conveyed by the previous clause. The only
causative coordinating conjunction is for.
For example:
The days became longer, for it was now
springtime.
A causative clause may be also joined
asyndetically.

48.

Declarative
Imperative
Communicative
Types of
Sentences
Exclamatory
Interrogative

49.

TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO
COMMUNICATION
• AFFIRMATIVE/ DECLARATIVE
• I COMPILED TESTS.
• INTERROGATIVE
• DID I COMPILE TEST?
• NEGATIVE
• I DID NOT COMPILE SENTENCES.
• EXLAMATARY
• I COMPILED TESTS!
• IMPERATIVE GO OUT!

50.

Declarative sentences
• form the bulk of monological speech and the greater part of
conversation. A statement may be positive (affirmative) or
negative.
For example: I have just come from a business trip.
I haven’t seen my sister yet.
A statement can be emphasized by the auxiliary verbs do, does,
did put in front of the base form of the verb.
For example: I do feel sorry for Roger.
For example: I wonder why he is so late.
You mustn’t talk back to your parents.

51.

Interrogative sentences
A GENERAL QUESTION opens with a verb operator (an
auxiliary, modal or link verb) followed by the subject. It is
characterized by the rising tone.
For example: Does it hurt much?
Can you speak French?
A TAG QUESTION is usually done when you expect the person
you are addressing to agree with you or confirm your
statement.
For example: It is quite warm, isn’t it? ―
positive statement+negative tag
You didn’t know I was an artist, did you? ― negative statement +
positive tag
I’m controlling it, aren’t I? ― note the negative tag with “I”.
Come into the kitchen,will you? ― to make your order sound less
forceful
Nobody had bothered to do this, had they? ― note the use of the
plural pronoun in the tag

52.

AN ALTERNATIVE QUESTION
or an “either” question, implies a choice between two or more alternative
answers.
For example: Do you like your coffee white or black? ― Black,
please.
Will you have your whisky, or do you want dinner straight away?
― Whisky.

53.

SPECIAL, or wh- questions
open with an interrogative pronoun or a pronominal adverb the
function of which is to get more detailed or exact information
about a particular person, thing, place, reason, method, or
amount.
For example: What am I going to do without you?
Who discovered this?
Where do you think he is now?
Which is the best restaurant? (which is used when there is a
limited choice).
When are going to go there.

54.

SUGGESTIVE, or declarative, questions form a peculiar kind of
“yes-no” questions.
For example: You’re working late tonight?
Suggestive questions are used:
1) when we want to confirm something,
2) when we want to express surprise,
3) as leading questions to get exact information,
4) in echo-questions repeating the structure of the statement that
came before.
For example: He said you were a very good teacher. ― He said
that?
The use of indefinite pronouns and adverbs has a positive
orientation (unless negation is meant).
For example: You have something to tell me? ― Just a few words.

55.

Imperative sentences
Express commands. Besides commands proper imperative sentences
may express prohibition, a request, an invitation, a warning,
persuasion, etc.
For example: Let’s not quarrel about trifles.
Somebody switch off light.
Silence, please (a verbless command).
Don’t be afraid of them.
Speak louder, please.
Would you do me a favour?
Let Philip have a look at it.
Let’s go outside.
Don’t let’s quarrel about trifles.

56.

Exclamatory sentences
Exclamatory sentences express ideas emphatically.
For example: What a funny story she told us!
How beautiful her voice is!
How I hate posters!
What a situation!
Isn’t it funny!
Doesn’t she sing beautifully!
If only I were young again!
Fire!( one-member sentence)
To think that she should have said so!

57.

Bibliography
• http://reftrend.ru/blocks/count_download
.php
• http://mir.zavantag.com/download/other25054/25054.doc
• http://mir.zavantag.com/download/other25049/25049.doc
• http://mir.zavantag.com/download/other25047/25047.doc
• http://mir.zavantag.com/download/other25060/25060.doc